Memory

Technology and
Virtual Machine

OLEH :

ADITYA P. P. PRASETYO, S. Kom., MT.

Computer Memory Hierarchy

http://www.bit-tech.net/hardware/memory/2007/11/15/the_secrets_of_pc_memory_part_1/3

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Memory Technology
– Performance metrics
– Latency is concern of cache
– Bandwidth is concern of multiprocessors and I/O
– External approach (e.g., multi-bank memory)
– Internal approach (e.g., SDRAM, DDR)
– Memory latency
– Access time (AT): time between read request and when desired word
arrives
– Cycle time (CT): minimum time between unrelated requests to memory
– DRAM used for main memory
– Dynamic: Must write after read, must refresh: AT < CT
– SRAM used for cache
– Static: no refresh or read followed by write: AT CT

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Memory Technology
– SRAM
– Requires low power to retain bit
– Requires 6 transistors/bit
– DRAM
– Must be re-written after being read
– Must also be periodically refreshed
– Every ~ 8 ms
– Each row can be refreshed simultaneously
– One transistor/bit
– Address lines are multiplexed:
– Upper half of address: row access strobe (RAS)
– Lower half of address: column access strobe (CAS)

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Memory Technology
– Amdahl:
– Memory capacity should grow linearly with processor speed
– Unfortunately, memory capacity and speed has not kept pace with
processors

– Some optimizations:
– Multiple accesses to same row
– Synchronous DRAM
– Added clock to DRAM interface and enables pipelining
– Burst mode with critical word first
– Wider interfaces
– Double data rate (DDR)
– Multiple banks n each DRAM device
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Flash Memory

– Type of EEPROM
– Must be erased (in blocks) before being
overwritten
– Non volatile
– Limited number of write cycles
– Cheaper than SDRAM, more expensive than disk
– Slower than SRAM, faster than disk

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Comparison

Attribute SSD HDD

Random access time 0.1 ms 5-10 ms
Bandwidth 100-500 MB/s 100 MB/s sequential
Price/GB 0.9$-2$ 0.1$
Size Up to 2TB, 250GB common 4TB

Power consumption 5 watts Up to 20 watts

Read/write symmetry No Yes
Noise No Yes (spin, rotate)

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Disadvantages of SSD

– Garbage collection (GC) problem of SSD

– Stemmed from the out-of-place update characteristics
– Update requests invalidate old version of pages and then write new version
of these pages to a new place
– Copy valid data to somewhere else (increasing number of IOs)
– Garbage collection is periodically started to erase victim blocks and copy
valid pages to the free blocks (slow erase: 10xW,100xR)
– Blocks in the SSD have a limited number of erase cycles
– 100,000 for Single Level Chip (SLC), 5,000-10,000 for Multiple Level Chip
(MLC), can be as low as 3,000
– May be quickly worn out in enterprise environment
– Performance is very unpredictable
– Due to unpredictable triggering of the time-consuming GC process

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Hybrid Main Memory System

– DRAM + Flash Memory

– Uses small DRAM as a cache to buffer writes
and cache reads by leveraging access locality
– Uses large flash memory to store cold data
– Advantages
– Similar performance as DRAM
– Low power consumption
– Low costs

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Memory Dependability

– Memory is susceptible to cosmic rays

– Soft errors: dynamic errors
– Detected and fixed by error correcting codes (ECC)
– Hard errors: permanent errors
– Use sparse rows to replace defective rows

– Chipkill: a RAID-like error recovery technique

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Virtual Machines

– Supports isolation and security

– Sharing a computer among many unrelated users
– Enabled by raw speed of processors, making the overhead
more acceptable

– Allows different ISAs and operating systems to be

presented to user programs
– “System Virtual Machines”
– SVM software is called “virtual machine monitor” or “hypervisor”
– Individual virtual machines run under the monitor are called “guest
VMs”

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Virtual Machine Monitors (VMMs)
– Virtual machine monitor (VMM) or hypervisor is software that
supports VMs
– VMM determines how to map virtual resources to physical
resources
– Physical resource may be time-shared, partitioned, or emulated in
software
– VMM is much smaller than a traditional OS;
– isolation portion of a VMM is  10,000 lines of code

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Virtual Machine Monitors
(VMMs)

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Impact of VMs on Virtual Memory

– Each guest OS maintains its own set of page tables

– VMM adds a level of memory between physical and
virtual memory called “real memory”
– VMM maintains shadow page table that maps guest
virtual addresses to physical addresses
– Requires VMM to detect guest’s changes to its own page table
– Occurs naturally if accessing the page table pointer is a privileged
operation

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VMM Overhead?

– Depends on the workload

– User-level processor-bound programs (e.g., SPEC) have
zero-virtualization overhead
– Runs at native speeds since OS rarely invoked
– I/O-intensive workloads  OS-intensive
 execute many system calls and privileged instructions
 can result in high virtualization overhead
– For System VMs, goal of architecture and VMM is to run almost
all instructions directly on native hardware
– If I/O-intensive workload is also I/O-bound
 low processor utilization since waiting for I/O
 processor virtualization can be hidden
 low virtualization overhead
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Requirements of a Virtual Machine Monitor
– A VM Monitor
– Presents a SW interface to guest software,
– Isolates state of guests from each other, and
– Protects itself from guest software (including guest OSes)
– Guest software should behave on a VM exactly as if
running on the native HW
– Except for performance-related behavior or limitations of fixed
resources shared by multiple VMs
– Guest software should not be able to change allocation of
real system resources directly
– Hence, VMM must control  everything even though
guest VM and OS currently running is temporarily using
them
– Access to privileged state, Address translation, I/O, Exceptions and
Interrupts, …

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Requirements of a Virtual Machine Monitor

– VMM must be at higher privilege level than guest VM,

which generally run in user mode
Þ Execution of privileged instructions handled by VMM
– E.g., Timer interrupt: VMM suspends currently running
guest VM, saves its state, handles interrupt, determine
which guest VM to run next, and then load its state
– Guest VMs that rely on timer interrupt provided with virtual
timer and an emulated timer interrupt by VMM
– Requirements of system virtual machines are
 same as paged-virtual memory:
1. At least 2 processor modes, system and user
2. Privileged subset of instructions available only in system mode,
trap if executed in user mode
– All system resources controllable only via these instructions

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ISA Support for Virtual Machines
– If plan for VM during design of ISA, easy to reduce instructions
executed by VMM, speed to emulate
– ISA is virtualizable if can execute VM directly on real machine while letting VMM retain
ultimate control of CPU: “direct execution”
– Since VMs have been considered for desktop/PC server apps only recently, most ISAs
were created ignoring virtualization, including 80x86 and most RISC architectures

– VMM must ensure that guest system only interacts with virtual
resources  conventional guest OS runs as user mode program on top
of VMM
– If guest OS accesses or modifies information related to HW resources via a privileged
instruction—e.g., reading or writing the page table pointer—it will trap to VMM
– If not, VMM must intercept instruction and support a virtual version of
sensitive information as guest OS expects

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Impact of VMs on Virtual Memory
– Virtualization of virtual memory if each guest OS in every VM manages its own
set of page tables?
– VMM separates real and physical memory
– Makes real memory a separate, intermediate level between virtual memory and
physical memory
– Some use the terms virtual memory, physical memory, and machine memory to name
the 3 levels
– Guest OS maps virtual memory to real memory via its page tables, and VMM page
tables map real memory to physical memory
– VMM maintains a shadow page table that maps directly from the guest virtual
address space to the physical address space of HW
– Rather than pay extra level of indirection on every memory access
– VMM must trap any attempt by guest OS to change its page table or to access the
page table pointer

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ISA Support for VMs & Virtual Memory
– IBM 370 architecture added additional level of
indirection that is managed by the VMM
– Guest OS keeps its page tables as before, so the shadow pages
are unnecessary
– (AMD Pacifica proposes same improvement for 80x86)
– To virtualize software TLB, VMM manages the real TLB
and has a copy of the contents of the TLB of each guest
VM
– Any instruction that accesses the TLB must trap
– TLBs with Process ID tags support a mix of entries from different
VMs and the VMM, thereby avoiding flushing of the TLB on a
VM switch
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Impact of I/O on Virtual Memory
– I/O most difficult part of virtualization
– Increasing number of I/O devices attached to the computer
– Increasing diversity of I/O device types
– Sharing of a real device among multiple VMs
– Supporting many device drivers that are required, especially if different guest OSes
are supported on same VM system
– Give each VM generic versions of each type of I/O device driver, and let VMM
to handle real I/O
– Method for mapping virtual to physical I/O device depends on the type of
device:
– Disks partitioned by VMM to create virtual disks for guest VMs
– Network interfaces shared between VMs in short time slices, and VMM tracks
messages for virtual network addresses to ensure that guest VMs only receive their
messages

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THANKS

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