Iv Ece RS Unit I

DEPT & SEM: ECE & I
SUBJECT NAME : RADAR

SYSTEMS
COURSE CODE : 15A04705
UNIT : I
PREPARED BY : Mr. P.SURESH BABU

OUTLINE
• Maximum Unambiguous Range
• Radar Equation
• Radar Block Diagram & Operation
• Radar Frequencies & Applications
• Minimum Detectable Signal, Receiver Noise
• SNR, False Alarm Time
• Integration of Radar Pulses
• Radar Cross Section of Targets
• Transmission Power, PRF
• Range Ambiguities, Radar Losses
COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 2

Introduction:

RADAR- Radio Detection and Ranging

Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of objects.

It operates by transmitting the EM signal, and detects the echo signal.
An elementary form of radar consists of a transmitting antenna emitting

electromagnetic radiation generated by an oscillator, a receiving antenna, and

receiver.

Range
cTR
R
2
Second time around echo

If the Pulse Repetitive frequency is too high, echo

signals from some targets might arrive after the

transmission of the next pulse and ambiguities
arises in measuring range.
Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next

pulse are called second-time-around(or multiple-

time-around) echoes

Maximum unambiguous range:
The range beyond which targets appear as second-

time-around echoes is called the maximum

unambiguous range.
c
R unamb 
2 fp
Where fp --- Pulse repetition frequency

Simple form of Radar Equation:

The radar equation relates the range of a radar to

the characteristics of the transmitter, receiver,

antenna, target, and environment.
If the power of the radar transmitter is Pt , the

power density at a distance R from the radar is

• The power density at the target from an antenna
with a transmitting gain G is

The measure of the amount of incident power

intercepted by the target and reradiated back in the

direction of the radar is denoted as the radar cross
section σ, and is defined by the relation
• If the effective area of the receiving antenna is

denoted Ae , the power Pr received by the radar is

The Rmax is the distance beyond which the target

cannot be detected.
It occurs when the received echo signal power Pr,

just equals the minimum detectable signal Smin.
Therefore


Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Fig :Radar block diagram

Fig. (a) PPI presentation displaying range vs. angle (intensity modulation) (b) A-
scope presentation displaying amplitude vs. range (deflection modulation).

Radar Frequencies:

Conventional radars generally have been operated

at frequencies extending from about 220 MHz to

35 GHz.

Radar Frequencies:

Electromagnetic Spectrum


IEEE Standard RADAR – frequency bands
Frequency Specific Radar bands based on
Band Designation
Range ITU assignments for region 2
HF 3-30 MHz
138-144 MHz
VHF 30-300 MHz
216-225 MHz
420-450 MHz
UHF 300-100 MHz
890-942 MHz
L 1000-2000 MHz 1215-1400 MHz
2300 - 2500 MHz
S 2000-4000 MHz
2700 - 3700 MHz
C 4-8GHz 5250 - 5925 MHz
X 8 -12GHz 8500 - 10680 MHz
13.4 - 14.0 GHz
Ku 12-18 GHz
15.7 - 17.7 GHz
K 18 -27 GHz 24.05 - 24.25 GHz
Ka 40 – 300 GHz 33.4 - 36.0 GHz
mm 40 – 100 GHz

Applications of RADAR
1.Military Use:
(i)Early warning of intruding enemy aircraft
missiles.
(ii) Tracking hostile targets and providing
location information to Air Defense systems
consisting of Tracking Radars controlling guns
and missiles.
(iii) Battle field surveillance
(iv) Information Friend
(v) Navigation of ships, aircraft, helicopter etc.

2. Civilian Use:
(i) Air Traffic Control(ATC)
All airports are equipped with ATC Radars, for safe
landing and take-off and guiding of aircraft in bad
weather and poor visibility conditions.
(ii) Air craft Navigation
(a) All aircrafts fitted with weather avoidance radars.
These Radars give warning Information to pilot about
storms, snow precipitation etc. Lying a head of
aircraft’s path.
(b) Radar is used as an altimeter to indicate the height
of the aircraft or helicopter.
Maritime ship’s safety and Navigation:
Radar used to avoid collision of ships during poor
visibility conditions (storms, cyclones etc.) (ii)Guide
ships into seaports safely.
Meteorological Radar:
Used for weather warnings and forecasting. Provides
sufficient advance information to civilian
administration for evacuation of population in times
cyclones, storms etc.

PREDICTION OF RANGE PERFORMANCE:

The maximum radar range in terms of radar and

target parameters is
This equation does not give the exact range, this is due
to
1) System losses
2) Meteorological conditions along propagation path
3) Performance of Radar operator

Minimum detectable signal:
The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the

minimum detectable signal.

It is difficult to define minimum detectable signal (MDS)

because of its statistical nature and because the criterion for

deciding whether a target is present or not is not too well defined.
Detection is normally based on establishing a threshold level at

the output of the receiver (as shown by the dotted line in the
figure below.)Whenever Rx output signal which is a mixture of
echo and noise crosses this threshold, then it is detected as a
target. This is called threshold detection.
Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function of time as shown in the figure below which typically

represents one sweep of the video output displayed on an A-scope.


Fig. Typical envelope of the radar receiver output as a function of time. A, and
B, and C represent signal plus noise. ,A arid B would be valid detections, but C is
a missed detection.


The envelope has a fluctuating appearance due to the random nature

of noise and consists of three targets A, B and C of different signal

amplitudes.
The signal at A is large which has much larger amplitude than the noise.

Hence target detection is possible without any difficulty and ambiguity.

Next consider the two signals at B and C, representing target echoes of

equal amplitude. The noise voltage accompanying the signal at B is

large enough so that the combination of signal plus noise exceeds the
threshold and target detection is still possible.
But for the target C, the noise is not as large and the resultant signal

plus noise does not cross the threshold and hence target is not
detected.
If the threshold level were set to low, noise might

exceed it and be mistaken for a target. This is called

a false alarm.
If the threshold level were set too high, but weak

target echoes might not exceed the threshold and

would not be detected. It is called a missed
detection.
Choose proper threshold voltage such that to
eliminate false alarm and missed detection.
Failing to recognize a signal that is present is

Probability of miss.
Falsely indicating the presence of a signal when it

does not exist is probability of a false alarm.

Receiver Noise:

Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which

interferes with the ability of the receiver to detect the

wanted signal.
It may originate within the receiver itself, or it may

enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired

signal.
Where K= Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x10-23J/deg.

Bn= Receiver bandwidth,
T =temperature in (degrees Kelvin).
The noise figure Fn represented as

• The noise figure Fn also represented as
• The noise figure is defined as a measure of the

degradation of signal-to noise-ratio as the signal
passes through the receiver.
From above equation the input signal may be expressed as

• If the minimum detectable signal Smin is that value

of Si corresponding to the minimum ratio of output
signal-to-noise ratio (So/No) necessary for detection.

• Then

Substituting above Eq. into Eq. of radar range

results in the following form of the radar equation:
4 Pt GAe
R 
max
4  KTo Bn Fn So / No min
2
• This is also called modified radar equation

Envelope detector:

Consider an IF amplifier with bandwidth BIF followed by a second

detector and a video amplifier with bandwidth B v shown in Fig.

Fig. Envelope detector

Probability of False Alarm:

The noise entering the IF filter is assumed to be Gaussian, with probability-

density function given by
p(v) dv – Probability of finding Noise voltage between v and v+dv
- variance or mean square value of noise voltage.
• If Gaussian noise was passed through a

narrowband IF filter whose bandwidth is small
compared with its mid band frequency then the
Probability density of envelope noise voltage output
is shown by Rice or Rayleigh PDF
Probability of False Alarm:

• The probability density of the envelope R of the

noise voltage output is given by
Where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the

filter output.
The probability that the envelope of the noise
voltage will lie between v1 and v2 is

The probability that the noise voltage envelope will

exceed the voltage threshold VT is the integral of

p(R) evaluated from VT to ∞
----(1)
• The probability of a false alarm is the probability

that noise will cross the threshold and be called a
target when only noise is present.
Fig. Envelope of receiver output illustrating false alarms due to
noise

• The average time interval between crossings of the
threshold by noise alone is defined as the false-
alarm time Tfa
• False-alarm probability is also defined as the ratio

of the duration of time the envelope is actually
above the threshold to the total time
---------(2)

By equating equations (1) and (2), we get


Probability of Detection:

Consider a sine-wave signal of amplitude A to be

present along with noise at the input to the IF filter.

The output of the envelope detector has a
probability is given by
• Where Io(Z) is the modified Bessel function of zero

order and argument Z.

The probability that the signal will be detected is

the same as the probability that the envelope R will

exceed the predetermined threshold V T.
Probability of detection Pd is therefore

 
R  ( R 2  A 2 )   RA 
Pd   PS R dR   exp    I o   dR
VT VT
o  2 o   o 

In Radar systems analysis, it is convenient to use

Signal to Noise power ratio rather than Signal to

noise-voltage ratio

INTEGRATION OF RADAR PULSES:

The process of summing all the radar echo pulses

for the purpose of improving detection is called

integration.
Many pulses are usually returned from any

particular target on each radar scan and can be used

to improve detection.

The number of pulses nB returned from a point

target as the radar antenna scans through its beam

 B fP  B fP
width is n B  
 S 6 m
θB -- Antenna beam width in deg
fP -- Pulse repetition frequency , Hz
θS -- Antenna scanning rate, deg/s
ωm -- Antenna scan rate , rpm

Integration before the detector is called pre

detection or coherent, integration
Integration after the detector is called post

detection or non coherent integration.

Integration Efficiency:
S N 
E i n  
1
Where n S 
N n
n -- Number of integrated pulses.
(S/N )1 -- Value of signal to Noise ratio of a single

pulse required to produce given
probability of detection ( n=1 ).
(S/N )n -- Value of signal to Noise ratio per pulse
required to produce same probability of
detection when n pulses are integrated.
n Ei (n) --- Integration Improvement factor
Now the radar eq with n pulses integrated can be written as
factor
4 Pt GAe
Rmax 
4  KTo Bn Fn S / N n
2
Where , (S/N)n --- is the SNR of one of n equal pulses
In terms of Integration Improvement factor

4 Pt GA e  nE i ( n )
R 
max
4   KT o B n F n S / N
2

1

PULSE

REPETITION FREQUENCY AND RANGE
AMBIGUITIES:
The rate at which the pulses are transmitted is called pulse

repetition frequency (PRF).
Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the pulse-

repetition period are called second -time-around echoes or

multiple-time-around echoes.
They can result in erroneous or confusing range

measurements.

Fig. Multiple-time-around echoes that give rise to ambiguities in

range
One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around

echoes from unambiguous echoes is to operate with

a varying pulse repetition frequency.

TRANSMITTER POWER:

The power Pt in the radar equation is called the

peak power.
If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular

pulses of width τ and pulse-repetition period T p=

l/fp, the average power is related to the peak power
by

Duty cycle is defined as

Now the range in terms of average power is
4
PavgGAe nEi (n)
R 
max
4  KTo (Bn . )Fn S / N 1 f P
2

The Pulse Energy is

P av
E P  P t   P av .T p 
fP
The range in terms of energy given by
4 Et GAe nEi (n)

R 
max
4 2 KTo (Bn . )Fn S / N 
1

RADAR CROSS SECTION OF TARGETS:
The radar cross section of a target is the

(fictional) area intercepting that amount of power
which when scattered equally in all directions,
produces an echo at the radar equal to that from
the target; or in other terms,
It is the measure of targets ability to reflect radar
signals in the direction of the radar receiver.


Fig. RCS of sphere

System Losses:
1. Measurable Losses
1. Plumbing losses
2. Antenna Beam shape losses
3. Collapsing losses
2. Unmeasurable Losses
1. Field degradation
2. Operator fatigue
3. Lack of operator motivation

1.Plumbing Losses:
This is loss in the transmission lines which
connects the transmitter output to the antenna
(Cables and waveguides).
At the lower radar frequencies the transmission

line introduces little loss, unless its length is
exceptionally long.
At higher radar frequencies, loss/attenuation

will not be small and has to be taken into
account.
2.Beam Shape Losses:
The antenna gain that appears in the radar equation was assumed to be a
constant equal to the maximum value.
The train of pulses returned from a target with scanning radar is modulated
in amplitude by the shape of the antenna beam.
To properly take into account the pulse- train modulation caused by the
beam shape, the computations of the probability of detection (as explained
earlier) would have to be performed assuming a modulated train of pulses
rather than constant-amplitude pulses.
The computation is difficult, a beam-shape loss is added to the radar
equation and a maximum gain is employed in the radar equation rather than a
gain that changes pulse to pulse.
n
Beam Shape loss  n 1 / 2
1  2  exp  5 . 55 k 2
/ n 2
B 
k 1

3. Collapsing loss :
If the radar were to integrate additional noise samples along with the
wanted Signal-to- noise pulses, the added noise results in degradation called
the collapsing loss.
If the integration of m noise pulses, along with n signal-plus-noise pulses

with signal-to-noise ratio per pulse (S/N)n, is equivalent to the integration of
m + n signal-to-noise pulses each with signal-to-noise ratio n(S/N)n /(m + n)
The collapsing loss in this case is equal to the ratio of the integration loss L i
for m + n pulses to the integration loss for n pulses, i.e
L i m  n 
L i m , n  
L i n 

Connector losses :
In addition to the losses in the transmission line itself, additional losses
occurs at each connection or bend in the line and at the antenna rotary joint if
used.
Connector losses are usually small, but if the connection is poorly made, it
can contribute significant attenuation. If the same transmission line is used for
both receiving and transmission, the loss to be inserted in the radar equation
is twice the one- way loss.
Duplexer losses :
The signal suffers attenuation as it passes through the duplexer.
Generally, the greater the isolation required from the duplexer on
transmission, the larger will be the insertion loss. Insertion loss means
the loss introduced when the component is inserted into the transmission
line. For a typical duplexer it might be of the order of 1dB.

Scanning losses :
When the antenna scans rapidly enough , the gain on
transmit is not the same as the gain on receive. An
additional loss has to be computed, called the scanning
loss.
The technique for computing scanning loss is similar

in principle to that for computing beam-shape loss.
Scanning loss is important for rapid-scan antennas or
for very long range radars such as those designed to
view extra terrestrial objects.

Operation losses :
An alert, motivated, and well-trained operator
performs as described by theory.
when distracted, tired, overloaded, or not properly

trained, operator performance will decrease. The
resulting loss in system performance is called operator
loss.

Field degradation :
when radar is operated under field conditions the performance
usually deteriorates even more than that can be accounted for by
the above losses.
To minimize field degradation Radars should be designed with

built-in automatic performance-monitoring equipment. Careful
observation of performance- monitoring instruments and timely
preventive maintenance will minimize field degradation.

Illustrative Problems:
Example1: A certain Radar has PRF of 1250 pulses per second. What
is the maximum unambiguous range?
Sol: Maximum Unambiguous Range is given by
R u = C /2fp
R u = 3x108/(2x1250) = 120Km

Example 2: A Pulse Radar transmits a peak power of 1 Mega Watt. It
has a PRT equal to 1000 micro sec and the transmitted pulse width is 1
micro sec. Calculate (i)Maximum unambiguous range (ii) Average
Power (iii)Duty Cycle (iv) Energy transmitted & (v)Bandwidth
Sol:
(i) Maximum unambiguous range = c.TP /2
= 3x108x1000x10-6/2 = 150x103m = 150 Km
(ii) Average Power = PPx τ / TP= 1x106 1x10-6 /1000x10-6
= 1000 watts = 1kw
(iii) Duty Cycle = τ/ TP
=1x10-6 /1000x10-6= 0.001
(iv) Energy transmitted = PPx τ (Peak power * time)
=1x106 x1x10-6= 1 Joule
(v)Bandwidth = 1/τ=1/10-6 =1 MHz
DIGITAL RESOURCES
 Lecture Notes -
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1NiOq4DR9wCq6FaKEfn34J_ymTzyPuXMq?usp=sharing
 Video Lectures -
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1QzT1d9OdcFQ9SMmJEHCkye0Fz65jrU39?usp=sharing
 E-Book -
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1NiOq4DR9wCq6FaKEfn34J_ymTzyPuXMq?usp=sharing
 Model Papers -
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1VA7edrnmnr57Ys-bXiwDnjxeni-bHgBg?usp=sharing

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DEPT & SEM: ECE & I

SUBJECT NAME : RADAR

PREPARED BY : Mr. P.SURESH BABU

• Maximum Unambiguous Range

• Radar Block Diagram & Operation

• Radar Frequencies & Applications

• Minimum Detectable Signal, Receiver Noise

• SNR, False Alarm Time

• Integration of Radar Pulses

• Radar Cross Section of Targets

• Transmission Power, PRF

• Range Ambiguities, Radar Losses

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 2

An elementary form of radar consists of a transmitting antenna emitting

electromagnetic radiation generated by an oscillator, a receiving antenna, and

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 3

If the Pulse Repetitive frequency is too high, echo

signals from some targets might arrive after the

pulse are called second-time-around(or multiple-

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 5

The range beyond which targets appear as second-

time-around echoes is called the maximum

Where fp --- Pulse repetition frequency

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 6

The radar equation relates the range of a radar to

the characteristics of the transmitter, receiver,

power density at a distance R from the radar is

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 7

intercepted by the target and reradiated back in the

• If the effective area of the receiving antenna is

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 8

just equals the minimum detectable signal Smin.

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 9

Fig :Radar block diagram

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 10

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 11

Conventional radars generally have been operated

at frequencies extending from about 220 MHz to

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 12

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 13

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 14

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 15

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 17

The maximum radar range in terms of radar and

minimum detectable signal.

because of its statistical nature and because the criterion for

represents one sweep of the video output displayed on an A-scope.

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 19

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 20

The envelope has a fluctuating appearance due to the random nature

of noise and consists of three targets A, B and C of different signal

Hence target detection is possible without any difficulty and ambiguity.

equal amplitude. The noise voltage accompanying the signal at B is

If the threshold level were set to low, noise might

exceed it and be mistaken for a target. This is called

target echoes might not exceed the threshold and

Failing to recognize a signal that is present is

does not exist is probability of a false alarm.

COURSE: RS UNIT: I Pg. 23

Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which

interferes with the ability of the receiver to detect the

enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired

Where K= Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x10-23J/deg.