 SAND CASTING

 MELTING FURNACES
 Sand moulds
– Blast
 Type of patterns
– Pattern materials – Cupola
– Pattern allowances  SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES
 Moulding sand – Shell
– Types – investment casting
– Properties – Ceramic mould
– Testing – Lost Wax process
 Core making – Pressure die casting
– Types – Centrifugal casting
– Applications
– CO2 process
 Moulding machines
– Stir Casting
– Types
(Working principle)
– Application
 DEFECTS IN SAND CASTING
 (SAND) CASTING
 Casting is one of the processes used for making
components of complicated shapes in larger quantity.

 Producing metal parts by pouring molten metal into

the mould or mold cavity of the required shape and
allowing the metal to solidify.

 The solidified metal piece is called as “casting”

 A plant where the castings are made is called a

“Foundry”
 SAND MOULDS
 Mould is the cavity of the required shape made in
moulding sand or other material.

 Pattern is the model of required casting made in

wood, metal or plastics.

 Foundry processes
1. Pattern making
2. Mould making
3. Casting
 TYPES OF PATTERN
1. Solid or Single piece pattern
2. Split pattern
3. Loose piece pattern
4. Match plate pattern
5. Sweep pattern
6. Skeleton pattern
7. Segmental pattern
8. Shell pattern
SOLID or SINGLE PIECE Pattern SPLIT Pattern
LOOSE PIECE Pattern
MATCH PLATE Pattern
 SWEEP Pattern SKELETON Pattern

SHELL Pattern
SEGMENTAL Pattern
 PATTERN MATERIALS
1. Wood – Teak, Mahogany, White pine….

2. Metal – Cast Iron, Brass, Aluminium, White metal……

3. Plaster
4. Plastics
5. Wax
 SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIALS
(Requirements of a good pattern)

 Secure the desired shape and size of the casting.

 Cheap and readily repairable.

 Simple in design for ease of manufacture.

 Light in mass and convenient to handle.

 Have high strength and long life in order to make as many molds
as required.
 Retain its dimensions and rigidity during the definite service life.
 MOULDING SAND
Special type of sand is used for making mould.

 3 Essential constituents
1. Refractory sand
2. Binder
3. Additive

 Silica is widely used as moulding sand.

 It has 80 to 90 % - Silica Dioxide
 It gives refractoriness to the sand.
 TYPES OF SAND
1. Natural Sand
 Available from natural deposits
 Needs only 5-8% water
 Used for light castings in Ferrous & Non-Ferrous

2. Synthetic Sand
 Prepared (with desired properties, as we like) artificially by
mixing clay free sand
 Used in mechanized production machine moulding & High
pressure moulding.

3. Special Sand
a) Zircon sand
b) Chromite sand
 TYPES OF MOULDING SAND
1. GREEN SAND
- in moist state
- 5 to 8 % of water & 16 to 30 % of clay
- Having good damping capacity
- Small and medium size castings

2. DRY SAND
- in dry stage
- called as ‘dry sand mould’ or ‘skin dry mould’
- large castings
3. Facing Sand
4. Loam Sand
 Consists of fine silica sand, fine refractories, clay (arround
50 %), graphite, fibre and water.
 Melting large castings – Bell, Roller, Pulleys etc.,

5. Backing Sand
 Used to backup the facing sand and to fill the whole volume
of the mould box.
 Old sand may used repeatedly

6. Parting Sand
MOULDING TOOLS
 MOULDING
Moulding is the process of making a mould
cavity by packing prepared moulding sand
around the pattern and removing the pattern
from the mould to form the mould cavity.

Types:
1. Green sand mould
2. Dry sand mould
3. Loam sand mould
 MOULDING METHODS
1. Bench Moulding
2. Floor Moulding
3. Pit Moulding
4. Sweep Moulding
5. Plate Moulding
JOLTING MACHINE
SQUEEZING MACHINE
SAND SLINGER
 MELTING FURNACE
1. Cupola – CI 4. Pot
2. Open hearth – Steel 5. Electric
3. Crucible – Non-Ferrous a) Direct arc
a) Pit type b) Indirect arc
b) Coke fired stationary c) Induction
c) Oil fired tilting
CUPOLA FURNACE
 CUPOLA FURNACE
A cupola or cupola furnace is a melting device used in foundries that can be used to
melt cast iron, Ni-resist iron and some bronzes.

The cupola can be made almost any practical size. The size of a cupola is expressed in
diameters and can range from 1.5 to 13 feet (0.5 to 4.0 m).

The overall shape is cylindrical and the equipment is arranged vertically, usually supported
by four legs. The overall look is similar to a large smokestack.

The bottom of the cylinder is fitted with doors which swing down and out to 'drop
bottom'.

The top where gases escape can be open or fitted with a cap to prevent rain from
entering the cupola. To control emissions a cupola may be fitted with a cap that is
designed to pull the gases into a device to cool the gases and remove particular matter.
The shell of the cupola, being usually made of steel, has refractory brick and
plastic refractory  patching material lining it.

The bottom is lined in a similar manner but often a clay and sand mixture may be used, as
this lining is temporary.

Finely divided coal can be mixed with the clay lining so when heated the coal decomposes
and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the opening up of the tap holes. 

The bottom lining is compressed or 'rammed' against the bottom doors. Some cupolas are
fitted with cooling jackets to keep the sides cool and with oxygen injection to make
the coke fire burn hotter.
CRUCIBLE - PIT FURNACE
CRUCIBLE - CFS FURNACE
CRUCIBLE - OFT FURNACE
 ELECTRIC FURNACES

An induction furnace is an electrical furnace in which the heat is applied by induction

heating of metal.

Induction furnace capacities range from less than one kilogram to one hundred tons, and
are used to melt iron and steel, copper, aluminum, and precious metals.

The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energy-efficient and well-controlled

melting process, compared to most other means of metal melting.

Most modern foundries use this type of furnace, and many iron foundries are
replacing cupola furnaces with induction furnaces to melt cast iron, as the former emit
much dust and other pollutants.
Induction furnaces do not require an arc, as in an electric arc furnace, or combustion, as
in a blast furnace.

As a result, the temperature of the charge (the material entered into the furnace for
heating, not to be confused with electric charge is no higher than required to melt it; this
can prevent loss of valuable alloying elements.

The one major drawback to induction furnace usage in a foundry is the lack of refining
capacity: charge materials must be free of oxides and be of a known composition, and
some alloying elements may be lost due to oxidation, so they must be re-added to the
melt.
ELECTRIC – DA FURNACE
(Direct Arc)
ELECTRIC – IDA FURNACE
(In Direct Arc)
INDUCTION FURNACE
 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES
1. Shell Mould Casting

2. Investment Casting

3. Ceramic Mould Casting

4. Lost Wax Process

5. Pressure Die Casting

1) Hot chamber Die Casting

2) Cold chamber Die Casting

6. Gravity Die Casting

7. Centrifugal Casting

8. Continuous Casting process

SHELL MOULD CASTING
INVESTMENT CASTING
 PRESSURE DIE CASTING
PDC - HOT CHAMBER PDC - COLD CHAMBER
 GRAVITY DIE CASTING CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
(Permanent mold casting)
CONTINUOUS CASTING PROCESS
 OTHER CASTING METHODS

• LOST WAX PROCESS

• CERAMIC MOULD CASTING
 DEFECTS
1. Shrinkage 9. Shift
2. Blow holes 10. Cold Shut
3. Scab 11. Inclusions
4. Swell 12. Fins
5. Hard Spots 13. Dress
6. Run out 14. Rat tail
7. Honey combing 15. Blister
8. Cracks
 INSPECTION METHODS
1. Visual Inspection

2. Pressure Test
3. Magnetic Particle Inspection

4. Dye-Penetrant Inspection

5. Radiographic Inspection
6. Ultrasonic Inspection

7. Thermography Inspection
MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Types of press working operations

 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

PRESS FORGING:
Press forging is similar to drop forging, since closed impression dies are used. But
metal is squeezed into the cavities at a high pressure, using hydraulic or mechanical
press.
EXTRUSION:
Extrusion is the process by which a block of metal is reduced in cross section by
forcing it to flow through a die orifice, under high pressure. In general, extrusion is
used to produce cylindrical rods or hollow tubes.
COLD WORKING:
In cold working, the metal is pressed to obtain the required shape. It is stretched
beyond its elastic limit. Cold working can be done only on ductile metals. The machine
used for most of the cold working operations is known as a “press”. The press is
equipped with dies and punches designed for certain specific operations.
Forward Extrusion 
In the most common forward extrusion process, a billet is pushed through a container or
die by means of a punch.

The material flows in the same direction as the punch to provide various types of exit
sections.

The process is also used on hollow slugs to reduce wall thickness, and to manufacture cans
with either cylindrical cavities or cavities with varying cross sections.

It is used to produce solid shapes such as rounds, thread blanks, squares, rectangles,
triangles, polygons and splines.

Hollow shapes, including rounds, polygons and splines are also forward extruded.
Backward Extrusion 

In this process, the material flows in the opposite direction to the upper punch.

The workpiece is formed either in the cavity formed between the punch and die,
or in the cavity of the punch.

Backward extrusion is used to produce circular inside and outside diameters, squares
with rounded corners, multiple outside diameters and multiple inside diameters.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Rolling
Rolling is a major and the most widely used industrial process. The industrial utility of this
process is distinctly visible by the range of rolled products available.

In steel mills, the metal is cast into a form called ”ingot”. Rolling is conventionally used to
deform the metallic ingots into various useful sections. From these ingots, sheet, plates,
rounds, etc. are rolled in steel rolling mills.

Rolling is the process of forming metal to required shape by passing it through a set of
power-driven rollers through a regulated opening. The rolls will have the desired profile
on its periphery. During rolling, plastic deformation of the metal takes place. The metal is
subjected to high compressive stress causing the metal to elongate. The crystals of the
metal are elongated in the direction of rolling.

When the metal is heated and then rolled, it is called “hot rolling”. When the metal is
rolled in cold condition, it is called “cold rolling.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

TYPES OF PRESSES:
Every press has press tools (punch and die), drive unit and a source of power.
Presses are classified according to the driving mechanism as:
1. Mechanical press:
The mechanical press may have “rack and pinion” drive or “crank and
connecting rod” drive.
2. Hydraulic press:
A Hydraulic press consists of hydraulic drive and press tools, namely, die and
punch. The punch is forced into the die cavity. The die is stationary and rests
on the press table. Dies may be classified according to the types of press
operations.
Different types of operations done on a press are as follows:
1. Shearing; 2. Bending; 3. Drawing; 4. Squeezing.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

HOT WORKING PROCESS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Porosity in the metal is mostly
eliminated
 Internal structure of the metal gets
refined.
 The continuity of grains in the
structure is maintained. This increases
the strength.
 Physical properties are generally
improved due to refinement of grains.
 Force required to change the shape is
less when compared to cold working.
 Metal, labour and time are saved.
 It is a rapid and economical process.
 There is a rapid oxidation of the
surface due to high temperature of
metal. This results in poor finish and
material loss.
 Close tolerances cannot be obtained.
 High temperature heating facilities are
required, which increases and
investment cost.
 Life of the tools used is reduced as the
tools have to work at high
temperatures.
 Automation is difficult, because of high
working temperatures.
 Thin gauge sheets cannot be produced.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

COLD WORKING PROCESS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Accurate dimensional control can be
obtained.
 No surface oxidation or scaling occurs .
 Surface finish obtained excellent.
 Cold working is a possible method to
increase hardness.
 Thin gauge sheets can be produced.
 Automation is possible because low
working temperatures.
 High capacity machines required since
the strength of the metal is very high
at cold working (Low temperature)
 Only small sized components can be
easily worked as for the larger section,
greater forces are required.
 All metals and alloys cannot be
formed. As a shaping process, it is
limited to ductile materials.
 The grain structure is not refined.
 Tool cost high, since very forces
involved in cold working process.
Benefits of Forging

The many positive features of forging is the reason that it has been a central part of
metal forming for so many years.

Machinery, engines, and technical equipment depend on forging to supply strong,

lasting, and reliable parts that provide optimum performance in any conditions.

Manufacturers and producers depend on forging to provide the components for their
products due to the positive and beneficial performance of forged parts.
Directional Strength

The controlled deformation of the forging process results in metallurgical soundness

and exceptional mechanical properties.

This factor is the result of the pre-working of the metal before inserting it in the forging
process, which creates the proper grain flow and directional properties of strength,
ductility, and resistance to impact and fatigue.
Resistance to Fatigue

Other metal fabricating methods cut the grain flow lines exposing ends, which leads to
fatigue and sensitivity to corrosion.

The forging process maintains the grain flow such that it follows the contour and shape of
the component or part.

By maintaining the grain flow, forged parts have greater fatigue and corrosion resistance.

Flexibility of Design

As engineers and designers work on their conceptualizations, they are able to create parts
with greater strength due to an understanding of how forging affects the grain flow and
makes designs resistant to fatigue and failure.

Forging allows designers to choose the correct materials and heat treatments for each
component, which results in improved mechanical strength, resilience, and impact
resistance.
Varying Thicknesses

The forging process allows for parts to have varying thicknesses due to the higher
strength to weight ratio.

The ability to mass produce parts using one operation capable of varying thicknesses
saves time, production costs, and shortens manufacturing runs.

Regardless of the material, there is consistency of the flow of the material from one forging
to the next.

Custom Designs

Custom forgings are produced swiftly and economically using a wide variety of materials
and design requirements in a broad range of sizes.

With the many innovations used by forging companies, custom designs are quickly
produced economically and efficiently.

Unusual shapes and configurations have become more feasible and are produced with
improved precision.
Strength

The primary benefit of forging is the strength it provides for completed products. This is
the result of the metal being able to retain its grain structure and alignment during the
forging process.

Preprocessing and pre-working of the metals removes any concerns for contaminants
that could damage or harm a component‘s strength. During recrystallization, metals
solidify flawlessly since potential harmful contaminants have already been removed.

Production Rates

A major benefit to the auto industry is the high production rates of forging.

Metals enter the forging process, and parts leave rapidly and efficiently in a matter of
seconds in the cold forging process.

In the hot forging process, the time increases to minutes with the delay for heating metals.

Regardless of the part, the forging process can be seamless and economically integrated
into pre-existing manufacturing operations.
Finishing

Though some forged parts may require after production finishing, the majority leave the
forging process with completed finishes and flawless surfaces.

This aspect of the process is another reason for the increase in production efficiency.

Downtime

The lack of complexity in the forging process leads to less downtime and fewer rejected or
poor quality parts.
In modern business, this is an important factor in order fulfillment and lower production
costs.

Waste

Of the problems related to metal production, waste is one of the most costly and damaging.

A major benefit of forging is the absence of waste. Any metal that is left from the forging
process can be repurposed and recycled.

In most manufacturing processes, the handling of scrap and waste is a significant labor and
time cost. With forging, those costs are eliminated, and the focus is on production.
Conclusion

Forging is a metal working process that manipulates, shapes, deforms, and compresses
metal to achieve a desired form, configuration, or appearance outlined by a metal
processing design or diagram.

Though forging is an ancient process, it is still an essential part of most metalworking

manufacturing processes.

With technological advancements and the development of new metals, forging has
changed but maintains much of its original form.

Modern forging uses a wide range of technical methods and heavy duty equipment to
produce parts that are essential for most of the necessities of society.

The controlled deformation of the forging process results in metallurgical soundness

and exceptional mechanical properties.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Oxy – Acetylene Welding

The combination of
oxygen and acetylene gas make
flame for welding process is
termed as
Oxy – Acetylene Gas
welding.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
MANUFACTURING PROCESS