RADIOGRAPHIC

INTERPRETAION

1
 Radiography is an inspection methods that are
based on the differential absorption of
penetrating radiation.
Uses of Radiography
 The ability to detect internal flaws
 The ability to detect significant variations in
composition
 Permanent recording of raw inspection data

Limitation
 Cracks cannot be detected unless they are
essentially parallel to the radiation beam.
 Laminations are nearly impossible to detect with

radiography; because of their unfavorable

orientation.

2
 Radiographic Interpretation is the
art of extracting the maximum
pertinent information from a
radiographic image required
judgment by the interpreter .It is
influenced, not only by the
viewing condition & vision acuity,
but also by the interpreter
knowledge and experience.

3
 Ensure that Interpreter has
adequate vision acuity under
proper viewing condition.
 Establish proper viewing room.
 Assess the quality of the

radiographic image.

4
 A qualified interpreter must:
 Define the quality of the radiographic image,
which includes a critical analysis of the
radiographic procedure and the image-
developing procedure
 Analyze the image to determine the nature and
extent of any abnormal condition in the test
piece.
 Evaluate the test piece by comparing interpreted
information with standards or specifications.
 Report inspection results accurately, clearly, and
within proper administration channels.

5
 Duties of a Radiographic Interpreter

 Mask of any unwanted light from viewer

 Ensure the background light is subdued
 Check the radiograph for correct identification
 Assess the radiographs density
 Calculate the radiographs sensitivity
 Check the radiograph for any artifacts
 Assess the radiograph for any defects present
 State the action to be taken, acceptable, rejectable or
repair
6
Radiographic Films

7
 The quality of the radiograph depends mainly on
film density, gradient, graininess, and fog, which
are functions of film type and development
procedure. The faster the film, the larger the
graininess and the lower the gradient--and vice
versa.
 Film gradient, also called film contrast, is a
measure of the slope of the characteristic curve.
If the difference is great, the gradient (contrast)
is said to be high. If the difference is slight, the
gradient is said to be low.
 Graininess is an inherent property of the
emulsion, but can be influenced somewhat by the
conditions of exposure and development.

8
 Radiographic Film

Base
cellulose acetate / polyester

Base must be :-
• Transparent - To allow white light to go through
• Chemically inert
• Must not be susceptible to expansion and contraction
• High tensile strength
• Flexibility

9
 Radiographic Film

Subbing
Base

Subbing
The film base is usually tinted blue and is about 0.18 mm
thick. A very thin but tough coating of gelatin called a
protective overcoat covers the emulsion to protect it
against minor abrasion. The total thickness of the x-ray
film is approximately 0.23 mm
Subbing layer -the adhesive between the emulsion and base
10
Radiographic Film

Supercoat

Subbing

Base
Subbing

Supercoat

11
 AgNo3(Aq) + KBr(Aq) AgBr(s)+KNo3(Aq)
 A crystal of silver bromide is a regular cubic

array of silver & bromide ions. The average

dia of a grain is 0.001mm.This is a FCC
structure of a crystal.

12
The film can be exposed by the direct action of X-rays, but more
commonly the X-ray energy is converted into light by intensifying
screens and this light is used to expose the film.

13
 Radiographic Film

What are the advantages of

Double Coated Film?

• Improve contrast
• Reduce the exposure time

14
 Image formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially
absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any
differing densities
The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient
amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the
latent image (hidden image)
1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into
metallic silver to produce the latent image
2. The affected crystals are the amplified by the developer,
the developer completely converts the affected crystals
into black metallic silver
3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation

15
 Film Types
Grain Size Speed Quality Film factor
Coarse Fast Poor 10
Medium Medium Medium 35
Fine Slow Good 90
Ultra Fine V.Slow V.Good 200

16
 Film emulsion produced by mixing solutions of
nitrate and salt such as potassium bromide.
 The rate and temperature determine the grain
structures
 Rapid mixing at low temperature - Finest grain
structure
 Slow mixing at high temperature - Large grain
structure

17
Processing Film

18
 Processing Systems
Developer

Running water

Fixer
Stop
bath

Manual System
19
 Processing Systems
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver
3-5 min at 20OC

Main Constituents
Developing agent metol-hydroquinone
Accelerator keeps solution alkaline
Restrainer ensures only exposed silver halides converted
Preservative prevents oxidation by air
Replenishment
Purpose – to ensure that the activity of the developer and the
developing time required remains constant

20
1. Reducing Agent: reduce exposed silver halide to
black metallic silver
-Hydroquinone (Blacks)
-Phenidone (Grays)
2. Activator: softens gelatin, maintains alkaline pH
(increase pH)
-Sodium Carbonate
3. Hardener: prevents damage to the film from over
swelling of gelatin in automatic processors.
-Gluteraldehyde

21
4. Preservative: Antioxidant that prevents
oxidation of developer
-Sodium Sulfite
5. Restrainer: prevents chemical fog protects
crystals from chemicals
-Potassium Bromide
6. Solvent: dissolves & ionizes the developer
chemicals
-Water

22
 Processing Systems

Stop Bath

3% Acetic acid - neutralises the developer

23
 Fixer

• Sodium Thiosulphate or Ammonium Thiosulphate

Functions:- 1. Removes all unexposed silver grains

2. Hardens the emulsion gelatin

• Clearing time - The time taken for the radiography

to loose its milky appearance.

• Fixing time - Twice the clearing time

24
1. Clearing Agent: dissolves undeveloped
silver halide-Ammonium Thiosulfate
2. Tanning Agent: shrinks, hardens,
preserves emulsion-Aluminum Salt
3. Activator: neutralizes developer,
maintains acidic pH (decrease pH)-Acetic
Acid
4. Preservative: prevents oxidation, prolongs
solution life-Sodium Sulfite
5. Solvent: dissolves other ingredients
-Water

25
 Processing Systems

Running water :The

:T hourly flow of water in the washing tank
should be from one to two times the volume of the tank.
Under these conditions, and at water temperatures between
16 and 21 °C, films require about 30 min of washing.

Insufficient washing, can caused the FILM yellow fog appears.

26
 Control of Temperature and Time : At
temperatures exceeding 24 °c, the radiograph
may become fogged, and the emulsion may be
loosened from the base, causing permanent
damage to the radiograph.
 Agitation During Development: Agitating the
film during the course of development is the
main factor that eliminates streaking on the
radiograph.
 Check the activity of Developer Solution: The
developing power of the solution decreases when
film after film is developed, Even when the
developer is not used, its activity will slowly
decrease because of oxidation of the developing
agent.

27
28
 Clean, dry location
 40 – 60 % Humidity 70 º Fahrenheit
 Away from chemical fumes
 Safe from radiation exposure
 Standing on edge
 Expiration date clearly visible

29
 X rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum
and are really a form of light. Like visible light, X-
ray photons travel at the speed of light, and they
can produce a latent image on film. Unlike visible
light, X rays can penetrate most opaque matter,
make some materials fluorescent, and produce
ionization of some materials. Energy is always
exchanged in discreet particles of light known as
photons. The loss of energy by the electron as it is
deflected by the heavy nuclei in the anode target
produces a very high energy photon of light called
an x-ray. The dental x-ray tube produces
Bremsstrahlung radiation.

30
X-RAY TUBE

31 31
 SENSITOMETRY
The relationship between the logarithm of the
radiation exposure and the optical density is
plotted, we obtain a curve known as the
Characteristic Curve or Sensitometric curve.

32
 Characteristic Curves
• Increasing exposures applied to successive
areas of a film.
• After development the densities are measured
• The density is then plotted against the log of
the exposure is called:
• Characteristic curve
• Sensitometric Curve
• Hunter & Driffield curve

33
34
 Characteristic Curves

Density
Shoulder
(Log)

Straight line
section

Toe

Log Relative Exposure

35
 Characteristic Curves

Information which can be obtained from a films

characteristic curve
• The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives
information about the films speed
• The gradient of the curve gives information on the films
contrast

36
 Characteristic Curves

Density Density obtained in a

(Log) photographic emulsion
does not vary linearly
with applied exposure

The steeper the slope the

greater the contrast

Log Relative Exposure

37
 Characteristic Curves
Density

A B C D E

Film A is faster than Film

B
Film B faster then C

Log Relative Exposure

38
 Characteristic Curves

Information which can be obtained from a films

characteristic curve
• The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives
information about the films speed
• The gradient of the curve gives information on the films
contrast
• The position of the straight line portion of the curve
against the density axis will show the density range
within which the film is at its optimal

39
 Changing Density
Density achieved 1.5
Density
Density required 2.5
2.5
Determine interval between logs
1.8 - 1.3 = 0.5
1.5
Antilog of 0.5 = 3.16

Therefore multiply exposure by 3.16

(measured density is lower than the required density) 1.3 1.8
Original exposure 10 mA mins Log Relative
Exposure
New exposure 31.6mA mins 40
 Density is the degree of blackness resulting
from radiographic exposure.
There are two kinds of density:
 Transmission density, which is associated with
transparent-base radiographic film.
 Reflection density, which is associated with
opaque-base imaging material such as
radiographic paper. The ratio of incident
intensity, I0, to transmitted intensity It, is called
opacity. The inverse of this ratio, It/I0, is called
transmittance OD = Log I0/It Where I0 = Incident
light intensity & It= Transmitted light intensity .

41
 is a device that measures the degree of
darkness (the optical density) of a
photographic .
 Transmission densitometers that measure

transparent materials.
 Reflection densitometers that measure light

reflected from a surface.

42
 Changing Film
Density
Obtain Logs for Films A and A B
B at required density 2.5

Interval between logs = 0.15

Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42

Multiply exposure by 1.42

Original exposure 10 mA mins 1.7 1.85

Log Relative
New exposure 14.2 mA mins
Exposure
43
RADIOGRAPHIC DEFINITION
DEFINITION is the sharpness of the dividing line
between areas of different density.

44
 Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change from one
density to another or sharpness of a radiograph , specified in
line pairs per millimeter or by the minimum
distance by which two features can be physically
distinguished.
 Radiographic sensitivity is generally refers to the
size of the smallest detail that can be seen on a
radiograph.
 Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities
transmitted by various portions of a test piece.
 Film latitude, which is the range of test piece
thickness that can be recorded with a single
exposure.

45
where Is is the intensity of the scattered radiation and Id is the intensity of the
direct (or primary) radiation passing through the tes tpiece.

Contrast sensitivity refers to the ability of responding to and displaying

small variations in subject contrast.

where ^D is the smallest change in photographic density that can be observed

when the film is placed on an illuminated screen. The factor GD is called the film
gradient or film contrast. The film gradient is the inherent ability of a film to
record a difference in the intensity of the transmitted radiation as a difference in
photographic density.

46
 DEFINITION
Radiographic Definition

Geometric Un-sharpness Inherent Un-sharpness

• FFD/SFD too short
• OFD too large
• Source size too large
• Vibration/movement
• Poor screen contact
• Coarse grain film
• Salt screens
• Wavelength too short
• Development time & other
film processing factors

47
 Film un-sharpness specifies the spatial
resolution of the film and must not be
confused with film graininess.
 Film un-sharpness depends not only on the

film grain size and the development process

but also on the energy of the radiation and
the thickness and material of the screens.
 Screen Un-sharpness : Screen un-sharpness

depends not only on the grain size and

thickness of the screen but also on the
detection efficiency and the energy and
intensity of the radiation.
48
 Radiographic Definition

Geometry Un-sharpness ( Ug)

• Controlled by focal spot, focal to film distance( FFD),
object to film distance (OFD)

Inherent un-sharpness (Ui)

• Controlled by the type of films being used (slow or
fast), type of screens and amount of backscatter.
49
Geometry of Image Formation

50
 Penumbra Ug)

Focal spot
size, F
Ug= F x ofd
fod
fod
ffd (Ug = 0.25mm)

ofd

51
 Penumbra (Ug)

 Source size as small as possible

 Source to object distance as large as
possible

 Object to film distance as small as

possible
52
 Penumbra Calculations

Penumbra = F x OFD
FFD – OFD
F = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275

= 4 x 25
275 - 25

Penumbra = 0.4mm
53
 Penumbra Calculations

Min FFD =OFD(1+F/Ug)

Where S = effective focal spot size.
F = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275
= 4 x 25
+ 25
0.25
Min FFD = 425mm
54
 Inherent Unsharpness
Stray electrons from
exposed crystals
- -

- -
- -
- -

- -

Exposed radiograph Adjacent crystals

with crack like indication affected by stray electrons

55
56
 Inherent Unsharpness

 Large film grain size increased inherent

Unsharpness

 Short wavelength increased inherent

Unsharpness

 Loose film crystal distribution increased

inherent Unsharpness
57
 Intensifying Screens

Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two

intensifying screens.
There are three main types of intensifying screens

•Lead screens

•Fluorescent screens

•Fluoro-metallic screens
58
 Lead Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
particulate radiation (electrons)
Generally lead of 0.05mm to 0.15mm
Frontscreen shortens exposure time and
improves quality by filtering out scatter
Back screen acts as a filter only

59
 Salt Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
Light radiation (Visible or UV-A)
Intensification action twice that of lead
screens
No filtration action achieved
Salt screen used calcium tungastate

60
 Film Latitude

Latitude – Range of thickness

61
 Fluorometallic Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens

Intensification action achieved by emitting light
radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate radiation
electrons)
High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
Salt used calcium tungastate

62
 Scatter

• Radiation emitted from any other source than

that giving the primary desired rectilinear
propagation.
• Scatter will lead to poorer contrast and
definition and create spurious indications
• It may also cause radiological protection
problems

63
 Scatter

• Internal scatter originating within the

specimen
• Side scatter walls and nearby
objects in the path
of the primary beam
• Back scatter materials located
behind the film

64
 Scatter

• Internal scatter originating within the

specimen

65
 Scatter
• Side scatter : walls and nearby objects in the
path of the primary beam.

66
 Scatter

• Back scatter materials located

behind the film

67
 Control of Scatter
• Protection from back scatter
• Beam filtration
• Blocking
• Grids
• Increased beam energy
• Use of masks, diaphragms, collimators
& lead screen.

68
Use of a lead diaphragm to limit the included angle of the x-ray beam, and use
of a filter to reduce subject contrast and to eliminate much of the secondary
radiation that causes undercutting.

69
 Radiation Diffraction is observed most often in
the radiography of thin test pieces having a grain
size large enough. Castings made of austenitic
corrosion-resistant and heat-resistant stainless
steel or of In-conel and other nickel-base alloys
are the products most likely to exhibit diffraction
in radiographs. Diffraction patterns can be
distinguished from these conditions in the test
piece by making successive radiographs with the
test piece rotated between exposures 1 to 5°
about an axis perpendicular to the beam.

70
 A mottled pattern due to porosity or
segregation will be only slightly changed,
but a pattern due to diffraction effects
will show a marked change. The Mottling
due to diffraction can be reduced, and
sometimes eliminated, by raising x-ray
tube voltage and by using lead screens.
Filters will usually aid in the control of
diffraction.

71
 Sensitivity

IQI sensitivity Defect sensitivity

72
IQI sensitivity
The image on a radiograph which is used to
determine the quality level.

Defect sensitivity
Ability to assist the sensitivity and locate a
defect on a radiograph.
(Depend on the defect orientation)

73
Image Quality Indicator

74
 Image Quality Indicators
 IQI’s / Penetrameters are used to measure
radiographic sensitivity and the quality of the
radiographic technique used.
 They are not used to measure the size of defects
detected.
 Standards for IQI’s include:
BS 3971
BS EN 462-1
DIN 54 109
ASTM E747

75
 BS EN 462-1,Europian standard wire type IQIs each
consist of 7 wires taken from a list of 19 wires.

Three standard wire groupings are available,

designation ‘W1’, wires 1 to 7,

designation ‘W6’, wires 6 to 12,
designation ‘W10’, wires 10 to 16
designation ‘W13’, wires 13 to 19

Each of these groupings is available in any of

4 types of material;
‘FE’, for Steel or stainless steel
‘CU’, for copper, tin, zinc and their alloy
‘AL’ for Aluminium
‘TI’. for Titanium

76
EN 462-1 wire type IQIs

77
Designation Diameter(mm)

W1 3.2
BS EN 462-1 wire diameters
W2 2.5
W3 2.0
W4 1.6
W5 1.25
W6 1.0
W7 0.8
W8 0.63
W9 0.5
W10 0.4 Easy to remember the wire diameters:
W11 0.32
W12 0.25
Remember the diameters of the first
W13 0.2 wire 3.2 & then multiply by 0.8 to get
W14 0.16 subsequent wire dia. And multiply
W15
W16
0.125
0.1
from 0.10 to 16th wire to get upper
subsequent wire dia.

78
 ASTM E 747
The series consists of 21 wires ranging from 0.08 mm to
8.1 mm in diameter; there are 4 overlapping groups of 6
wires, each designated by a letter (A, B, C or D)

IQI type WIRE DIAMETERS

A 0.08 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.2 0.25

B 0.25 0.33 0.4 0.5 0.63 0.81

C 0.81 1.0 1.27 1.6 2.0 2.5

D 2.5 3.2 4.0 5.1 6.3 8.1

79
80
 Image Quality Indicators

7FE12

Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

81
4T
2T

1T

82
Image Quality Indicators

83
 ASME Image Quality Indicators
4T dia
T dia
Penetrmeter Design
2T dia
Minimum Penetrmeter Thickness 0.5mm
(2% of the weld thickness) 12mm

17
Minimum Diameter for 1T Hole 0.5mm
Minimum Diameter for 2T Hole 1.0mm
Minimum Diameter for 4T Hole 2.00mm 38mm
T

IQI Sensitivity

1 Hole visible = 4T
2 Holes visible = T
3 Holes visible = 2T
84
 Image Quality Indicators

Step/Hole Type IQI

Wire Type IQI

85
 Placement of IQI
• IQI must be placed on the maximum thickness of weld
• Thinnest required step or wire must be placed at the
extreme edge of section under test
• IQI must be placed at the source side
• In case of access problem , IQI has to placed on the film
side of the object, letter ‘FS’ should be placed beside the
IQI.
• IQI material chosen should have similar radiation
absorption/transmission properties to the test specimen

86
 IQI Sensitivity

 Ideally IQI should be placed on the source side

 IQI sensitivity is calculated from the following formula

Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100

Object Thickness

87
 IQI Sensitivity

A Radiograph of a 16mm thick but weld is viewed under the

correct conditions, 5 wires visible on the radiograph IQI pack
6-12 Din 62, what is the IQI sensitivity?

Sensitivity = Thickness of thinnest wire visible X 100

Total weld thickness

EQUIVALENT SENSITIVITY = 100/X Root TH/2 Where X = Thick of

object, T= Thick of IQI & H = visible hole diameter.

88
 IQI Sensitivity
Using the same IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, How many IQI wires
must be visible to give an IQI sensitivity of 2 %, thickness of
material 16mm
Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100
Total object thickness

89
Exposure Control

90
Exposure control

For FFD/SFD change

E1 D1 2
=
E2 D2 2
E1 = New exposure time
E2 = Original exposure time
D1 = New FFD
D2 = Original FFD
91
 Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change
Example: Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600mm
Original exposure at FFD= 500mm was 10 min

E1 D1 2
=
E2 D2 2

92
If a good radiograph was produced using
an exposure of 100 curie minutes at a
source to film distance of 850 mm what
exposure will produce a good radiograph
if the source to film distance is changed
to 550 mm (assuming that all other
factors remain equal)?
E1 D1 2
=

E2 D2 2 93
SFD = 800 mm. If all other factors remain equal
what exposure is needed at an exposure chart for
iridium 192 that has been constructed for SFD =
500 mm gives an exposure of 100 Ci-min for 25
mm of steel. The specification calls for a
minimum specified SFD?

E1 D1 2
=
E2 D2 2

94
A radiographic technique produces a good
radiograph, the settings are:
kV =175, mA = 5, FFD = 440 mm and
Exposure time = 2 mins 12 secs
What exposure time will be required if the
settings are changed as follows?
kV = 175,mA = 3.5, FFD = 500

E1 D1 2
=
E2 D2 2
95
 Exposure calculation

E = Intensity X Time (mA.min) – X-Ray

E = Intensity X Time (ci.mins) – Gamma Ray

Example for X-ray

E = exposure (mA.min)
I = Tube current (mA)
T = Exposure time (min)
96
 Exposure calculation

In one radiographic operation, an-x-ray

machine is set at 5mA and the radiographic film
is exposed for a period of 15 minutes. What is
the total exposure received by the film?
Solution:

97
A satisfactory radiograph is produced in 3
minutes at 8 mA. Assuming that all other
factors remain the same, what exposure time
is required if the mA is reduced to halved?

98
Radiographic Techniques

99
 Radiographic Techniques
 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
- film inside, source outside
 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
- film outside, source outside (external exposure)
 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)

10
0
 Single wall single image SWSI

Film

Film

IQI’s should be placed source side

10
1
Single wall single image SWSI panoramic

Film

• IQI’s are placed on the film side

• Source inside film outside (single
exposure) 10
2
 Double wall single image DWSI

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm
10
3
 Double wall single image DWSI

Identification

• Unique identification EN W10

• IQI placing
A B
• Pitch marks indicating
readable film length ID MR11
Radiograph
10
4
Double wall double image DWDI elliptical
exposure

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters less
than 100mm 10
5
 Double wall double image DWDI

Identification 4 3
• Unique identification EN W10

• IQI placing
• Pitch marks indicating 1 2
readable film length ID MR12

Shot A Radiograph
10
6
 Double wall double image (DWDI)
perpendicular exposure

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of three exposures
• Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld
• This technique is intended for small pipe diameters
10
7
 The double-wall, double-image technique is
mainly applicable to sections with an outside
diameter of no more than 90 mm.
 Two radiographs 90° apart are required to
provide complete coverage when the ratio of
outside diameter to inside diameter is 1.4 or less.
 When the ratio of outside diameter to inside
diameter is greater than 1.4 that is, when radio
graphing a thick-wall tube the number of views
required to provide complete coverage can be
determined by multiplying that ratio by 1.7 and
rounding off to the next higher integer.

108
 Sandwich Technique

Density Density Density Density

3.0 1.2 3.0 1.2

Density requirement 2.0 to 3.0

Density unacceptable
10
9
 Sandwich Technique

FILM A FILM A
FILM B FILM B
LEAD
SCREENS

Density Density Density Density

3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0

FILM A: Fast film - Thicker section

Density 2.0 to 3.0 acceptable
FILM B: Slow film - Thinner section
11
0
 The maximum area of coverage for a single
radiograph is normally recommended to be no
more than 6 to 10% difference in penetrated
thickness between the center of the area and the
extremities. Mathematically, this can be expressed
for flat plates of uniform thickness as:

where x is the field size, L is the source-to

detector distance, and the values 0.35 and 0.46 are
derived from the laws of similar triangles for 6 and
10% increase in penetrated thickness, respectively.

111
It must have the following:
 Heat controller
 Intensity control switch
 Diffused light : minimize variation in the
intensity of light across the area being
viewed. Diffusing glass must be positioned
between the light source and the viewing
area.
 Masks to evaluate a small portion of a large
radiograph.

11
2
 Viewing conditions
• Darkened room
• Clean viewer
• Minimum adequate illumination from the viewer is
3000cd/m2
• Eyesight must be adjusted to the darkened conditions
• Comfortable viewing position and environment
• Avoid fatigue

11
3
 Radiographic Quality
 Density - relates to the degree of darkness

 Contrast - relates to the degree of difference in

density between adjacent areas on a radiograph

 Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness

 Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the

radiograph

11
4
 Factors Influencing Sensitivity

Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

11
5
 Contrast

Radiographic contrast :- The density difference on a radiography

between two areas- usually subject and

the background (overall)

Subject contrast :- Contrast arising from variation in

opacity within an irradiated area

Film contrast :- The slope of characteristic curve of the

film at specified density. ( Type of film 11
6
11
7
 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Density Film Energy Object Processing

contrast

Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation

11
8
 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Film Screens Energy Vibration Geometry Processing

speed

Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation

11
9
 Radiographic Contrast

Film Contrast Subject Contrast

Film type Density Processing Scatter Wavelength Screens

12
0
Radiographic Contrast

Poor contrast

Poor contrast

High contrast
12
1
 The amount of blackness on the film is called
the optical density, D

12
2
 Radiographic Density

Incident light
Density = Log10
Transmitted light

* Greater contrast is achieved at higher density

12
3
 Radiographic Density

Lack of Density Excessive Density

 Under exposure  Over exposure

 Developer temp too low  Excessive development

 Exhausted developer  Developer temp too high

 Developer too weak  Too strong a solution

12
4
 Measuring Radiographic Density

 Density is measured by a densitometer

 A densitometer should be calibrated using a
density strip

4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0

12
5
What is a good radiograph?
A good radiograph satisfies the
inspection requirement.

12
6
 Determination of Exposure
 Film density to be achieved
 Wavelength - Gamma fixed, X-ray variable
 Intensity - Gamma curries fixed, X-ray mA variable
 Film speed
 Source to film distance
 Material type
 Material thickness

12
7
 Determination of Gamma Exposures
Gamma exposures are calculated by the use of a
gamma calculators/slide rule
Gamma calculators take into consideration

• Film density to be achieved

• Source type
• Activity of the source
• Film speed
• Source to film distance
• Material type
• Material thickness

12
8
 Determination of X-ray Exposures

X-ray exposures are less straight forward because the

wavelength and intensity are variable

X-ray exposures are determined by the following

• By using exposure charts
• By reference to previous exposure records
• By trial and error test shots
• By a combination of the above

12
9
 Consideration for Exposures

Wavelength of radiation will affect

- Density
- Contrast
- Definition

X-Ray wavelength Gamma Wavelength

Lower kV – higher contrast Different isotopes produce

Higher kV- lower contrast Different wavelength

Co60 have a shorter wavelength than Ir 192 therefore lower

contrast and definition produced when using on the same
specimen with Co60

13
0
 Consideration for Exposures

Intensity of Radiation & Exposure Time

Exposure time is proportional to the intensity of radiation

Exposure = time X intensity

This relationship is known as the Reciprocity Law

13
1
 Consideration for Exposures
X–ray Exposure calculation

Exposure = intensity (mA) x time Higher mA

3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA min. -The greater the intensity
1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA min. -The darker the image will be

Gamma Exposure calculation

Exposure = intensity (Ci) x time The higher activity of isotopes

-The greater the intensity
4 curie at 5 minutes = 20 Ci mins. -The darker the image will be
10 curie at 2 minutes = 20 Ci mins.

13
2
 Consideration for Exposures

X-ray Equipment

A different set of equipment with the same panel setting (kV

and mA)

-Will produce different wavelength

-Will produce different intensity
-Will produce different quality of radiograph

Filter types and thicknesses

-Differ between X-ray tubes

-To cut out secondary radiotion
-Provide more homogeneous x-ray beam &less scatter level
-Thick filter require more exposure than thinner filter

13
3
 Consideration for Exposures
Intensifying Screen
• Reduce the exposure to attain the required density
• Fluorescent & flourometallic screen have an adverse
affect on the definition
• Using lead screen (x-ray) obey the Law of Reciprocity
(E = mA x T)

Fluorescent & flourometallic screen

•Emit light of various wavelength including UV

•Failure of the reciprocity law when
intensification is due to light exposure
•More likely to be attained by trial and error

13
4
 Consideration for Exposures
Film Type

•A fast film-produce denser image

compare to slow film

•A slow film gives better definition at

the correct exposure

13
5
A steel section 50 mm thick requires an
exposure of 700 curie-minutes using Iridium
192 with a source to film distance of 1 metre
using Kodak CX film and lead intensifying
screens.

All other factors being equal

the exposure time would
therefore be:
• 1 hour 10 minutes with a source strength of 10
Curies.
• 20 minutes with a source strength of 35 Curies.
• 7 minutes with a source strength of 100 Curies.

13
6
An exposure which produces an acceptable radiograph may
have been determined to be, 36 mAmins at 200 kV.

If this was the case then any of the following exposures

should give an identical acceptable result:

• 9 mA for 4 mins at 200 kV.

• 18 mA for 2 mins at 200 kV.
• 2 mA for 18 mins at 200 kV.

13
7
Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three
basic steps:

 (1) detection,

 (2) interpretation, and

 (3) evaluation.

13
8
 i) Rounded Indications – indications with a
maximum length of three times the width or less.
These indications may be circular,
elliptical, conical, or irregular in shape.
 ii) Aligned Indications – a sequence of four or more

rounded indications shall be considered to be

aligned when they touch a line parallel to the
length of the weld drawn through the center of the
two outer rounded indications.
 Linear Indication – A linear indication is one
having a length greater than three times the
width.

139
 Discontinuities are interruptions in the
typical structure of a material
 Defects discontinuities, which do not meet

the requirements of the codes or

specifications used to invoke and control an
inspection, are referred to as defects.

140
 Types of discontinuities
 Inherent discontinuities: results of its initial

production from ore to raw components up to

the point where it ready for initial processing.
 Service discontinuities: That develop when

part being in service like fatigue

corrosion, damage from impact load.
 Processing discontinuities: Introduced during

primary process like casting/welding/forging

& second during finishing process like
machining/grinding defect.

141
 Welding Discontinuities
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler
metal does not properly fuse with the base
metal or the previous weld pass material
(inter pass cold lap). The arc does not melt
the base metal sufficiently and causes the
slightly molten puddle to flow into the base
material without bonding.

142
143

Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in
the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often appears as
dark round or irregular spots . This is the
result of gas attempting to escape while the
metal is still in a liquid state and is called
wormhole porosity.
 Hollow Bead: is an elongated gas void that is

usually centrally oriented in the root pass

and may also extend for a significant length.

144
145
 Clusterporosity is caused
when flux coated electrodes
are contaminated with
moisture. The moisture turns
into a gas when heated and
becomes trapped in the weld
during the welding process.
The indications will be
grouped close together.

146
147
 Slaginclusions are nonmetallic
solid material entrapped in
weld metal or between weld
and base metal. In a
radiograph, dark, jagged
asymmetrical shapes within
the weld or along the weld
joint areas are indicative of
slag inclusions.
148
149
 LOP occurs when the weld
metal fails to penetrate the
joint. The appearance on a
radiograph is a dark area with
well-defined, straight edges
that follows the land or root
face down the center of the
weldment.

150
151
Incomplete fusion is a condition
where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base
metal. appears as a dark line or
lines oriented in the direction
of the weld seam along the weld
preparation or joining area.

15
2
153
Internal concavity or suck
back is a condition where the weld
metal has contracted as it cools
and has been drawn up into the
root of the weld. On a radiograph it
looks similar to a lack of
penetration but the line has
irregular edges and it is often quite
wide in the center of the weld
image.
154
155
 Internal or root undercut
is an erosion of the base metal
next to the root of the weld. In
the radiographic image it
appears as a dark irregular line
offset from the centerline of the
weldment. Undercutting is not as
straight edged as LOP because it
does not follow a ground edge.

156
157
External or crown undercut
is an erosion of the base
metal next to the crown
of the weld. In the
radiograph, it appears as
a dark irregular line
along the outside edge of
the weld area.
158
159
 Offset or mismatch
are terms associated with a condition
where two pieces being welded together
are not properly aligned. The
radiographic image shows a noticeable
difference in
density between the two pieces. The
difference in density is caused by the
difference in material thickness. The
dark, straight line is caused by the failure
of the weld metal to fuse with the land
area.

160
161
 Inadequate weld reinforcement
is an area of a weld where the
thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the
thickness of the base material.
The image density in the area
of suspected inadequacy will
be higher (darker) than the
image density of the
surrounding base material
162
163
 Excess weld reinforcement
is an area of a weld that has
weld metal added in excess of
that specified by engineering
drawings and codes. The
appearance on a radiograph is
a localized, lighter area in the
weld.

164
 Cracks are fracture or ruptures of the weld metal
occuring when the stress in a localized area exceed
the weld metal’s ultimate tensile strength.It
will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines.
Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or
porosity.
There are basically two types of crack one is Hot & other cold.
Hot crack: occur while the weld metal is in plastic condition
Cold crack: occurs after the weld metal has cooled.
It is also classified as Longitudinal Crack, Transverse crack,
Under bead crack(occur in the HAZ), Crater crack(star shaped
occurs in a depression at the end of a weld bead.

165
166
 Tungsten inclusions
Tungsten is a brittle and inherently
dense material used in the electrode
in tungsten inert gas welding. If
improper welding procedures are
used, tungsten may be entrapped in
the weld. Radiographically, tungsten
is more dense than aluminum or
steel therefore it shows up as a
lighter area with a distinct outline on
the radiograph.

167
168
Whiskers are short lengths
of weld electrode wire,
visible on the top or bottom
surface of the weld or
contained within the weld.
On a radiograph they
appear as light, "wire like"
indications.
169
 Burn-Through results when too
much heat causes excessive weld
metal to penetrate the weld zone.
Often lumps of metal sag through
the weld, creating a thick globular
condition on the back of the weld.
These globs of metal are referred
to as icicles. On a radiograph,
burn-through appears as dark
spots, which are often surrounded
by light globular areas (icicles).
170
171
 CASTING DEFECTS:

Casting is a manufacturing process by which

a liquid material is usually poured into a
mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solidified part is also known as a
casting, which is ejected or broken out of
the mold to complete the process.

172
GAS POROCITY GAS VOID

17
3
 are nonmetallic oxides, which appear on the
radiograph as irregular, dark blotches.

17
4
 is a form of discontinuity that appears as
dark spots on the radiograph. Shrinkage
assumes various forms, but in all cases it
occurs because molten metal shrinks as it
solidifies,

 There are at least four types of shrinkage:

 (1) cavity;
 (2) dendritic;
 (3) filamentary; and
 (4) sponge types.

17
5
176
 Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed
discontinuities that occur after the melt has solidified. They
generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces.
 Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast
metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and
failing to unite. They may appear on a radiograph as cracks
or seams with smooth or rounded edges.
 Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent
fractures formed in a metal during solidification because of
hindered contraction.
 Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an
indistinct area of more or less dense images. The condition
is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague,thin-
section radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless
steel.

177
crack in a steel weldment.

Crack in a steel
HOT TEAR
weldment

178
Dark outline of a shape similar to the shape of
the chaplet
itself .Chaplets are used to maintain cores in
their correct position during the casting
process. When a chaplet is not fused
completely by the molten metal, a discontinuity
is formed.

17
9
 ARTIFACTS

Probable causes and corrective action for various

types of artifacts on processed radiographic film
 Density too high reason

 Overexposure View with higher-intensity light.

Check exposure (time and radiation intensity)

 Overdevelopment Reduce development time or

developer temperature.
 Density too low reason
 Underexposure Check exposure (time and

radiation intensity
 Underdevelopment Increase development time or

developer temperature. Replace weak developer.

180
 FOG
 Light leaks in darkroom With darkroom unlighted, turn on all
lights in adjoining rooms; seal any light leaks.
 Exposure to safelight Reduce safelight wattage. Use proper
safelight filters.
 Stored film inadequately protected from radiation
Attach strip of lead to loaded film holder and place in film-
storage area. Develop test film after 2 to 3 weeks; if image of
strip is evident, improve radiation shielding in storage area.
 Film exposed to heat, humidity, or gases Store film in a cool,
dry place not subject to gases or vapors.
 Overdevelopment Reduce development time or developer
temperature.
 Developer contaminated Replace developer.
 Exposure during processing Do not inspect film during
processing until fixing is completed.
181
 Dark circular marks: Film splashed with developer prior to
immersion Immerse film in developer with care.
 Dark spots :Insufficient fixing Use fresh fixer solution and
proper fixing time.
 Static discharge: Unwrap film carefully. Do not rub films
together. Avoid clothing productive of static electricity.
 Dark fingerprints :Touching undeveloped film with
chemically contaminated fingers Wash hands thoroughly and
dry, or use clean, dry rubber gloves.
 Light fingerprints Touching undeveloped film with oily or
greasy fingers Wash hands thoroughly and dry, or use clean,
dry rubber gloves.
 Light circular patches: Air bubbles on film during
development
Agitate immediately upon immersion of film in developer.

182
 Reticulation (leather grain appearance):

Temperature gradients in processing

solutions Maintain all solutions at uniform,
constant temperature.

Frilling (loosening of emulsion from film base)

 Fixer solution too warm Maintain correct
temperature of the fixing solution.
 Fixer solution depleted Replace fixer solution.

183
 lower density compared to adjacent areas.
 Causes : localized application of pressure

to an area of the film before exposure.

 Preventive action: handle film with care. Avoid

any type of pressure on the film.

18
4
 crescent-shaped defects that are darker
(higher density)than adjacent film areas
 sharp bending of the film after exposure and

just before or during processing will crimp

the film.
 film is handled improperly when cassettes or

hangers are being unloaded

18
5
Crescent-shaped defects that are lighter (lower density)
than adjacent film areas.
Causes: Sharp, abrupt bending of the film before
exposure causes crimp marks of this type.

18
6
 Appear as either jagged, branching dark lines
or irregular
 Causes: The dissipation of static electricity
 Occurs during removing film quickly from its

box when the relative humidity is low

 Preventive action:Keep film at a relative

humidity that’s greater than 40%. Avoid

sliding the films or moving fast when
removing film from its box.

18
7
 small spots of a lower density than the
surrounding film area.
 Before development, a splash of fixer, even

in trace amounts, will cause spots.

DEVELOPER SPOTS

HAIR LINES

18
8
 A screen mark will appear as a dark line on
a negative. Screen marks will also appear
as white spots on a negative.
 A dark line is caused by a deep scratch on

the lead foil screen.

 Light spots are caused by flakes of foreign

material on the screen.

18
9
 Defined as a line, smear, or band. In this case
it can be black or white.
 Caused by any of several types of chemical

contamination.
 The contamination often occurs in poor
 darkroom setups or because of improper

processing technique.
 Streaks of this type happen when chemicals

from prior processing cycles are not

completely removed from hangers.

19
0
 Relevant Indications – only those rounded
indications that exceed the following
dimensions shall be considered relevant and
compared to the acceptance charts for
disposition.
 t /10 for t less than 3 mm (1/8 in)
 0.4 mm (1/64 in) for t greater than or equal
to 3 mm (1/8 in) and less than or equal to 6
mm (1/4 in)
 0.8 mm (1/32 in) for t greater than 6 mm
(1/4 in) and less than or equal to 50 mm (2 in)

19
1
 1.5 mm (1/16 in) for t greater than 50 mm (2
in)
 Maximum Size of Rounded Indication – the

maximum permissible size of any indication

 shall be t /4 or 4 mm (5/32 in), whichever is

smaller; except that an isolated indication

separated from an adjacent indication by 25
mm (1 in) or more may be t /3, or 6 mm
(1/4 in), whichever is less. For t greater than
50 mm (2 in) the maximum permissible
size of an isolated indication shall be
increased to 10 mm (3/8 in).

192
 6. Aligned Rounded Indications – aligned rounded
indications are acceptable when the
summation of the diameters of the indications is
less than t in a length of 12t .
Minimum group spacing 3L where L is the longest
imperfection in the group.
 7. Clustered Indications –The length of an

acceptable cluster shall not exceed the lesser of 25

mm (1 in) or 2t .
 Where more than one cluster is present, the sum of

the lengths of the clusters shall not

exceed 25 mm (1 in) in a 150 mm (6 in) length
weld.

193
 Any crack or zone of incomplete fusion or
lack of penetration
 ii) Any other linear indication that has a

length greater than: 6 mm for t less than or

equal to 19 mm
 t /3 for t greater than 19 mm and less than

or equal to 57 mm
 19 mm for t greater than 57 mm
 RC is acceptable if density is less than the

parent metal density.

19
4
 Required commercial quality : storage for
3-10 years.
 Required archival quality: storage for 20 years

or more
If radiography films are not properly washed,
fixer chemicals thiosulfate salts remain in the
emulsion, affect the storage life. If it exceeds
a certain max allowable limit, the radiograph
becomes fade or change in color during long
term storage.

19
5
 Methylene blue test : performed within two
weeks of processing the film.
 Silver densitometric test: can be performed at
any time. Both are laboratory procedure.
 Rough estimation can be performed using 710
ml of water, 120 ml of acetic acid, & 7ml of
silver nitrate and diluted with 950 mlof water
prior to use. When a drop of this solution is
placed on a clear area of a radiograph ,it turns
brown. Now matching the brown spot with
patches on a standard test strip.

19
6
 THE END

THANKS

197