DEBAJYOTI

BARDHAN

RADIATION PHYSICS
DEFINATIONS
RADIOLOGY - Radiology is a branch of
medical science that deals with the study of
radiation and its use , radioactive substances
and other forms of radiant energy in the
diagnosis and treatment of diseases .
RADIATION –Radiation is a form of energy
carried in the form of waves or stream of
particles , which transmit through space and
matter .
X-RADIATION X radiation is a high energy
radiation produced by the collision of a beam of
electrons with a metal target in a x ray tube .
X –RAY X- ray is a beam of energy that has power
to penetrate substances and record image shadows
on a photographic film .
RADIOGRAPH – Radiograph is an picture on a film
which is visible when viewed under
transillumination , produced by the passage of
xrays through an object or body .

RADIOGRAPHY- It is the art and science of
making radiographs .
USES OF DENTAL RADIOGRAPHY
To detect lesions , diseases and conditions of the teeth
and surrounding structures that cannot be identified
clinically .
To classify and confirm suspected disease
To localize the lesions of foreign objects
To provide information during the dental procedures
To evaluate growth and development
To illustrate secondary changes to caries periodontal
disease and trauma
To document the condition of the patient at a specific
point of time
RADIATION PHYSICS
 On the night of November eight ,1895 a tiny bit of

fluorescence was noticed by a german Wilhelm

Conrad Roentgen . He was professor of physics at
the physical institute of Julius Maximillian
University at WURZBERG .
On the day of discovery roentgen was working in his

laboratory and completely covered his Hittorf

Crookes tube with black photographic paper so that
he could better visualise the effects of cathode rays in
the tube .
 A plate coated with barium platinocyanide a
fluorescent material happened to be lying on a
bench several feet from the crookes tube , no
light escaped from the crookes tube but roentgen
noted that the barium platinocyanide fluoresced
regardless of its distance from the crookes tube &
he found the intensity of fluorescence increased
as the plate was brought closer to the tube
consequently.He quickly realized that he was
observing a new form of energy.
He had a little doubt about the origin of the rays & traced back the

rays to the source. He immediately started working on these rays. He

termed them as x-rays after the mathematical symbol for the
unknown “x”.

In december 1895 with the knowledge that certain material would

absorb the beam of x rays when placed in its path he replaced the
flourescent screen with photographic plate .
He demonstrated an image of the dense object could be captured

on the photographic plate .

He took a permanent x-ray photograph of his wife

Bertha’s hand by exposing her hand against an

photographic plate for 15 min .
 He found that the developed photographic plate

showed the bones in her hand .

On December 28th 1895 just 40 days after the
initial observation of X –rays he submitted first
paper on this new kind of rays
- A PRELIMINARY COMMUNICATION OF THE
NEW KIND OF RAY .
Roentgen was awarded the first nobel prize in
physics in 1901.
DENTAL USE OF X- RAY
In Jan 1896 the english radiograph FRANK
HARRISON had made the first dental
radiograph by using a 1o min exposure .But
there was no proof to his claim

Dental radiology

Exactly after 14 days after roentgen publication

Dr. Olto wallhof a dentist in Germany used a 25

min exposure to make a first dental radiograph.
. In 1896 Dr.C.Edmund kells fitted his office with a

equipment of his own design & first took an

intraoral radiograph He is known as the father of
dental radiology. He designed his own dental
apparatus & his own technique for radiography.
He published his work termed dental cosmos in
1896.
1910 Franklin W.Mccormack opened the first dental

x-ray laboratory then slowly in the year 1933

Dr.Numata was the first to make panoramic
radiograph of teeth

In 1946 Patero demonstrated a slit beam method of

panoramic radiography & he is said to be the father

of panoramic radiography.
History of the dental film
From 1896 to 1913 dental x- ray packets consisted
of glass photographic plates cut into small
pieces hand wrapped in rubber or black paper
In 1913 the Eastman kodak company
manufactured the first the prewrapped intraoral
films made with plastic base
The first machine made periapical film packets
became available in 1920
Basics of physics
The world is made up of matter. Anything that occupies

space & has inertia is said to be matter. It is a physical

manifestation having form or a shape. All matter are
essentially made up of molecules & atoms
An atom is the fundamental unit of any element which

cannot be sub divided by a any ordinary chemical

methods. An atom consists of two parts, a central
nucleus & orbiting electrons.
. They are arranged in a fashion just like as that of solar

system. With the sun as the nucleus in the centre & the
electrons are the planets which revolve around the
nucleus in the shell.
The nucleus or the dense core of the atom is composed

of particles known as protons & neutrons. The protons

carry positive electrical charge & the neutrons carry no
charge at all .
 Electrons are tiny particles that has very small mass when

compared to the protons & neutrons they are negatively charged

particles and they revolve around the nucleus in designated shells
called as K,L,M,N,O,P,Q .These shells are located at a specific
distance from the nucleus.

 Electrons are kept in their position in their respective shells by a

balance between the electrostatic attraction of unlike changes and

centrifugal force of fast moving electron. This is known as the
binding energy.
 The energy required to remove an electron from its shell should

overcome its binding energy. This binding energy is different for

each shell and it is more in the shells close to the nucleus.

 The no of neutrons + no of protons gives the atomic weight or

mass number of an element designated by the letter A. Where as

the no protons or the protons or the no of electrons gives the

atomic number of an element and is designated by the letter Z.

This determine’s the chemical properties of the element.

When the number of protons =number of electrons ,the atom

is said to be stable.
 When the number of protons is not equal to the number
of electrons, the atoms becomes are unstable atom.
 When there is an excess number of neutrons than the desired

number of neutrons for that particular element, the nucleus

is unstable emitting sub atomic particles and it becomes a
radionuclide.
What is an ion?

 When a stable atom looses an electron it

becomes an positively charged and becomes an

positive ion.
 When it gains an electron it takes a negative
charge and the atom becomes an negative ion.
 The change that the atom takes depends on
the number of electrons it loose or gains
What is ionisation?

 The process of converting an stable atom to an charged ion is

called ionisation.
 This energy required to produce an ion is called ionisation
energy. When an electron is removed from an atom in the
process of ionisation these results in an ion pair the atom
becomes posetively charged & electrons has a negative charge.
Ionisation can be brought about by many methods such as
heating the atom, collision etc
What is radiation
These always exists a confusion between
radiation and radioactivity
 Radiation is the transmission of energy space
through space & matter.
Radioactivity is defined as the process by which
certain unstable atoms or elements undergo
spontaneous disintegration or decay in an effort
to attain a more balanced nuclear state. What we
use is radiation & not radioactivity.
Ionising radiation

The radiation that is capable of producing

ionisation either by adding or removing an

electron to an atom is called an ionising
radiation.
Types of ionising radiation
Ionising radiation can be classified into two

categories. Particulate & electromagnetic radiation.

Although all ionising radiation acts as on the biologic
tissue in the same manner, there are fundamental
differences between various types of radiation.
These difference can be analysed to 5 physical
characteristic mass, energy, velocity, charge, & origin.
Particulate radiation
Any subatomic particle in motion is capable of

causing ionisation. So electrons, protons,

neutrons & even nuclear fragments can be
classified as particulate Ionising radiation.
 If they are travelling in straight line they cause

ionisation of matter & transmit their kinetic

energy. They are not capable of ionisation at rest.
Types of particulate radiation

The alpha particle

The beta particle

The cathode rays

Alpha particle

It is doubly charged Helium nucleus . It contains two protons

& two neutrons without the associated orbital electrons. It

carries two units of positive electric charge. Alpha particle
exerts a large electrostatic attraction. Alpha particles are
emitted from the nucleus of heavy elements. Alpha particles
are capable of ionising 40000 atoms per centimetres of
travel through air. When alpha particle losses all its energy
it attracts two electrons & becomes an atom of helium gas.
ALPHA PARTICLE
RADIATION
Beta particle

Beta particle differ from the alpha particle in both mass & charge.

They carry one unit negative charge. They are emitted from the
nucleus of a radioactive atom. In simple terms beta particles are
electrons emitted from the nucleus of the radioactive atom. They
traverse in air with a lower ionisation power and travel a longer
distance than that of alpha particle, transferring all its kinetic
energy. Once it looses its kinetic energy it comes to rest &
combines with a atom that is deficient in electrons.
Cathode rays

Cathode rays are also similar to the beta particle they are

fast moving electrons moving with high speed but the

only difference is that they originate from the crookes
tube , other properties are similar to beta particle.
Accelerated protons & neutrons also come under

particulate radiation & they also have the capability to

ionise.
Electromagnetic radiation

It is the movement of energy through space as a

combination of electric & magnetic fields. It is

generated when the velocity of an electrically
charged particle is altered.
PROPERTIES
They have no mass or weight or electrical charge.
They travel at the speed of light . They generate
when electric & magnetic field are at right angle
to the path of propagation.
In space they travel in straight line & they obey
the inverse square law.
These exhibit properties of absorption,
scattering.
They have different measurable energy.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVE
 CLASSIFICATION of electromagnetic
radiation

Based on the production, electromagnetic radiation can

be classified as artificial & natural.

IONISING/ NON IONISING Based on the energy levels if

the energy level is 15ev or even more it is capable of

ionising atoms & molecules & than it is called ionising &
if it is of lesser energy & not able to produce ions it is
called non-ionising radiation. cosmic rays, gama rays &
x-rays are ionising while others are non-ionising.
Spectrum or an continuum is an un interrupted

ordered sequence similarly the electromagnetic

radiation are arranged in a progressive series
according to their wavelength called the
electromagnetic spectrum or the continuum.
The electromagnetic spectrum comprises of the radio

waves, microwaves, IR, visible light, UV, x-rays, gamma

rays, and the cosmic rays. The only difference between
them is their wavelength or the energy, as the
wavelength or the energy changes so do their properties
of the different types of radiation. The only part of the
spectrum that is visible is light, but it occupies a very
narrow portion of the spectrum.
EM SPECTRUM
waves Vs particle CONCEPT

The interaction of the electromagnetic radiation

are difficult to understand. Some interactions

can be best explained by theories of wave
propagation. Others are best understood if they
are assumed to be particles.
Wave concept

A wave can be defined as a variation or disturbance that

transfer radiant energy aggressively from point to point

in a medium. The wave model of electromagnetic
radiation describes the variation of electric & magnetic
fields as the photon travels with the velocity. The term
velocity refers to the speed of the waves. They travel with
the speed of he light in a vacuum. The velocity is 3 x 10^8
meters per second.
 Wave length
The important property that describes the wave
concept is wave length. The distance from one crest
to another or from one valley to another. In
simpler terms from any point on the wave length to
next corresponding point is called the wave length.
 The wave length determines the energy &
penetrating power. Shorter wavelength have high
energy & high penetrating power. The unit of
measurement is nanometer & it is expressed with
the symbol gamma.
Frequency

The rate of rise or fall is called frequency. It is

usually identified as oscillation per second. To be

more clear the number of crest or the number of
valleys that pass the point of an observer per unit
time is frequency. The unit of measurement is
hertz.
Amplitude

It is the height of a crest or depth of trough of a

wave. It is represented by a letter “A”.
A simple mathematical formula express the
relation between velocity, frequency, & wave
length.
 According to this equation knowing two
properties of the wave other one can be
calculated.
 E = h x c/lamda
 For an electromagnetic radiation the
frequency & wave length are
inversely proportional.
 As the frequency of an
electromagnetic radiation increases
the wave length decrease & vice verse
Particle concept
It was put forth in the year 1901 otherwise called
the quantum theory. It explains the phenomenon
such as diffraction & interference. According to
this theory EM is not in the form of waves but as
the packet of quanta or photons. The quantum is a
small packet or bundle of energy with its size
proportional to the frequency of radiation. This
theory relates energy & frequency. The photon
energy is directly proportional to photon
frequency. The constant of proportionality is
known as the planes constant
DENTAL X-RAY MACHINE

Every x-ray machine regardless of its design has

three parts. The function of the x-ray machine is
to provide sufficient intensity of electron flow in a
controlled manner to produce x-rays
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

When the switch is put on. There is activation of

the low voltage ciruit, i.e the step down

transformer gets activated which decreases the
incoming 110v or higher voltage to 3 to 6 volts
which flows through the filament. The outer shell
electrons of the tungsten atom gets boiled and are
ejected out.
This process of ejection of electrons is called
thermionic emission.
 SPACE EFFECT-Now the filament is fully
surrounded by a cloud of electrons .
 The activation of the high voltage circuit occurs
which converts the incoming voltage to 65000 to
one 1,00,000 volt and the electrons surrounding
the filament gets accelerated and is focussed by the
focussing cup towards the target area of the anode.
 The electron hit the tungsten target of the anode.
When fast moving electrons slam into a metal
target, x-rays are produced. Kinetic energy of
electrons is transported to EME
Few interaction take place at the atomic level and

the kinetic energy of the electron are converted to

E.M energy & x-rays are produced. About 99% of the
interaction result in heat production & 1% x-rays are
produced. X-rays are produced isotropically in all
direction but after filtration and collimation the
useful beam exists through the PID
Mech of production
 There are two mechanisms by which x rays are

produced . BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION and

CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION .
BREMSSTHRALUNG RADIATION
DIRECT HIT
It is produced when the high speed electrons hit the
nucleus of a target atom all of its kinectic energy will
be converted to a single x- ray photon of maximum
energy .
The energy of the resultant photon is equal to the
energy of the electron .
PASS ADJACENT TO THE NUCLEUS - Most of the high
speed electrons pass just near the nucleus causing the
negetively charged electrons to get attracted toward
the positively charged nucleus and loses some of its
kinectic energy
This results in electron being decelerated and
deflected . The energy is given off in the form of
low energy photon.
CHARACTERISTIC RADITION
CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION OCCURS WHEN A ELECTRON

HITS THE TARGET ATOM , WHICH EJECTS THE ELECTRON

FROM THE INNER ORBIT , CREATING VACANCY .

THIS INNER VACANCY IS QUICKLY FILLED WITH ELECTRON

FROM OUTER ORBIT

WHEN THE DISPLACED ELECTRON IS REPLACED BY THE

OUTER SHELL ELECTRON , A PHOTON IS EMITTED WITH THE

ENERGY EQUIVALENT TO THE DIFFERENCE IN THE ENERGY
LEVELS OF THE TWO ORBITS
COMPONENTS
The dental x-ray machine consists of three
visible parts
Control panel
Extension arm
Tube head
CONTROL PANEL
The control panel of the x-ray machine contains
on off switch
 an indicator light
Control devices like time milliamperage , time
and kilovoltage .
The control panel is plugged into an electrical
outlet and appears as a panel or cabinet
mounted on the wall outside the dental
operatory
EXTENSION ARM
THE WALL MOUNTED EXTENSION ARM
SUSPENDS THE X-RAY TUBE HEAD AND
HOUSES THE ELECTRICAL WIRES
THE EXTENSION ARM ALLOWS FOR THE
MOVEMENT AND POSITIONING OF THE TUBE
HEAD
TUBE HEAD
SEALED HEAVY METAL HOUSING THAT CONTAINS X-RAY
TUBE
COMPONENTS
 METAL HOUSING
 INSULATING OIL – prevents overheating by absorbing the
heat created by the production of x rays
 TUBE HEAD SEAL- aluminium or lead glass covering the
tube head that permits the exit of x-rays from the tube head ,
it seals the oil in the tube head and acts as a filter to the x-
ray beam
 X-ray tube is the heart of the x ray generating system
 TRANSFORMER – A device that alters the voltage of
incoming electricity
FILTRATION - ALUMINIUM SHEETS OF 0.5mm
thick aluminium are placed in the path of the
xray beam , they filter the non diagnostic rays
.
Lead collimator - A lead plate with a central
hole that fits directly over the opening of the
metal housing where the x rays exit .
It restricts the size of the beam .
POSITION INDICATING DEVICE
It is an open ended lead lined cylinder that
extends from the opening of the metal housing
of the tube head , it aims and shapes the x-ray
beam
It is also called as cone
X RAY TUBE PROPER
 ALL DENTAL AND MEDICAL AND DENTAL XRAY MACHINES
USE COOLIDGE TUBE THAT FOLLOW THE ORIGINAL DESIGN
OF SIR W C COOLIDGE INTRODUCED IN 1913
 BASIC SHAPE OF ORIGINAL COOLIDGE CONSISTS OF A
SPHERICAL BULB WITH TWO CYLINDRICAL ARMS SPREDING
ON THE BOTH SIDES .
 IT CONSITS OF CATHODE AND ANODE
 BOTH LIE IN A EVACUATED GLASS TUBE .
 THE CATHODE IS THE SOURCE OF ELECTRONS .

.
CATHODE
It consits of filament and focussing cup .
Filament is the source of electrons .
Filament is made up of tungsten coil .
The filament lies in the focussing cup
Focussing cup is a negetively charged concave
reflector made of up molybddenum .
THE FOCUSSING CUP ELECTROSTATICALLY
FOCUSSES THE ELECTRONS EMITTED BY THE
INCANDESCANT FILAMENT INTO A NARROW
BEAM .
IT IS DIRECTED AT THE SMALL RECTANGULAR
AREA “ FOCAL SPOT “ OF THE ANODE .
THE NEGETIVE CHARGE OF THE REFLECTOR
REPELS THE ELECTRONS TO THE POSITIVELY
CHARGED ANODE .
ANODE
THE ANODE CONSIST OF A TUNGSTEN TARGET
EMBEDDED IN COPPER STEM .
THE PURPOSE OF THE TARGET IS TO CONVERT THE
K.E OF THE ELECTRONS INTO X – RAY PHOTONS.
TUNGSTEN IS A IDEAL TARGET MATERIAL .
HIGH ATOMIC NUMER
HIGH MELTING POINT
HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
LOW VAPOUR PRESSURE AT WORKING
TEMERATURE .
A TARGET MADE UP OF HIGH ATOMIC NUMBER
MATERIAL IS BEST BECAUSE IT IS THE MOST
EFFICIENT IN PRODUCING X-RAYS .
THE TUNGSTEN TARGET IS EMEDDED IN A
LARGE BLOCK OF COPPER BLOCK TO
DISSIPATE HEAT.
COPPER IS A GOOD THERMAL CONDUCTOR . IT
DISSIPATES HEAT FROM TUNGSTEN ,THUS
REDUCING THE RISK OF TARGET MELTING .
INSULATING OIL BETWEEN THE GLASS
ENVELOPE AND THE HOUSING OF THE TUBE
CARRIES HEAT AWAY FROM COPPE STEM .
THE FOCAL SPOT IS THE AREA ON THE
TARGET TO WHICH THE FOCUSSING CUP
DIRECTS THE ELECTRONS FROM THE
FILAMENT .
THE HEAT PRODUCED PER UNIT AREA
BECOMES GREATER AS THE FOCAL SPOT
DECREASES IIN SIZE .