02 Presentation of Data

PRESENTATION OF
DATA
Uses of Presentation
 Easy and better understanding of the subject

 Provides first hand information about data
 Helpful in future analysis
 Easy for making comparisons
 Very attractive
Principles of Presentation
 Data should be presented in simple form

 Generate interest in reader
 Should be concise but without losing important
details
 Facilitate further statistical analysis
 Define problem and should suggest its solution
Methods of presentation of data
 Numerical (Tabular) presentation

 Graphical presentation
 Mathematical presentation
Tabular presentation
 Tabulation
 It is a systematic and logical arrangement of classified
data in rows and columns
 What sport do you play?

Sport People
Soccer 106
Tennis 45
Gymnastics 54
Swimming 82
Track 68
 Significance of tabulation
 Simplifies complex data
 Unnecessary details and repetitions of data avoided in
tabulation
 Facilitates comparison
 Gives identity to data
 Reveals pattern with in the figures which cannot be
seen in the narrative form
 Rules of tabulation
 A number should be assigned to the table (Table No.)
 A title should be given to the table, it should be concise
and self explanatory
 Contents of the table should be defined clearly
 Subtitles should be properly mentioned with columns
and rows
 Group intervals in columns and rows should neither be
too narrow nor too wide
 They should also be mutually exclusive
 Unit of measurement must be mentioned clearly
wherever necessary
 Any short forms/symbols, if used, should be explained
in the footnote
 No place should be left in the body of tables
 There should be logical arrangement of data in the
table
 Types
 Simple frequency distribution table
 Complex frequency distribution table
 Relative frequency distribution table
 Cumulative frequency distribution table
 Simple frequency distribution Table

 Data relating to only one characteristic
Title
Name of variable
Frequency
(Units of variable)
- Categories
Total
 Simple frequency distribution Table

 Table I: Distribution of 50 lakes in a state based on the
level of pollution
Level of pollution Frequency

No pollution 12
Low 18
Medium 5
Extreme 15
Total 50
 Complex frequency distribution Table

 Data relating to two or more characteristics
 Double table
 Treble table
 Multiple table

 Double table
 Data relating to only two characteristics
 Table: Distribution of level of heavy metal contamination of
water
Water contamination
Heavy Metal Total
Heavy Low
Lead 15 8 23
Arsenic 5 32 37
Total 20 40 60

 Treble table
 Data relating to only three characteristics
water based on the type of industries
Water contamination
Industry Heavy Low
Lead Arsenic Lead Arsenic
Mining 1 4 10 14
Other 0 2 1 6
Total 1 6 11 20

 Multiple table
 Data relating to more than three characteristics
water based on the type and size of industries

Water sample
Gender Heavy Low
Lead Arsenic Lead Arsenic
Mining Small 0 1 2 2
Large 1 3 8 12
Other Small 0 0 1 2
Large 0 2 0 4
Total 1 6 11 20
 Relative frequency distribution Table

level of pollution
Level of pollution Frequency %

No pollution 12 24
Low 18 36
Medium 5 10
Extreme 15 30
Total 50 100

 Table I: Distribution of level of heavy metal
contamination of water
Water contamination
Total
Heavy Metal Heavy Low
No. % No. % No. %
Lead 15 75 8 20 23 38.33
Arsenic 5 25 32 80 37 61.67
Total 20 100 40 100 60 100

 Table II: Distribution of level of heavy metal
contamination of water
Water contamination
Total
Heavy Metal Heavy Low
No. % No. % No. %
Lead 15 65.2 8 34.8 23 100
Arsenic 5 13.5 32 86.5 37 100
Total 20 33.3 40 66.7 60 100
 Cumulative frequency distribution Table

level of pollution
Level of pollution Frequency Less than cumulative
series
No pollution 12 12
Low 18 30
Medium 5 35
Extreme 15 50
Total 50
 Cumulative frequency distribution Table

level of pollution
Level of pollution Frequency More than
cumulative series
No pollution 12 50
Low 18 38
Medium 5 20
Extreme 15 15
Total 50
Graphical presentation
 Advantages
 They are attractive
 They give a bird’s eye-view of the data
 They can be easily understood by common men
 They facilitate comparison of various characteristics
 The impression created by them are long lasting
 Theorems and results of statistics can be visualized
using graphs
 Limitations
 Are visual aids; cannot be considered as alternatives for
numerical data
 Though theories and results could be easily visualized,
mathematical rigour cannot be brought in
 Are not as accurate as tabular data
 Cannot be used for further analysis as tabular data
 It is possible to create wrong impressions using diagrams
and graphs; observers can be misled easily
 Rules for drawing graphs and diagrams

 First choose the form of diagrams/graphs which is
capable of representing the given set of data
 Title: Gives information of diagrams or graphs contain
 Scale
 Selection of scale should be neither too small or too large
 The scale should also specify the size of unit and what it
represents. (e.g., No. of persons in thousands, mg/mL, etc.)
 Rules for drawing graphs and diagrams

 Neatness
 Attractive: Different types of lines or shades, colours
etc. can be used to make the pictures more attractive
 Originality: Helps the observer to see the details with
accuracy
 Simplicity: Good diagram depends upon ease with
which the observer can interpret it
 Difference between graphs and diagrams

 To construct a graph, graph paper is generally used
whereas a diagram is constructed on a plain paper
 A graph represents mathematical relationship between
two variables whereas a diagram does not
 Graphs are more appropriate than diagrams to
represent frequency distributions and time series
 Diagrams are not at all used for representing frequency
distributions
 Difference between graphs and diagrams

 Diagrams are more attractive to the eyes and as such
are better suited for publicity and propaganda
 Diagrams do not add anything to the meaning of the
data and hence they are not helpful in analysis of data
 Graphs are very much used by the statisticians and the
research workers in their analysis
 Graphs
 Line or dot plot
 Stem and leaf plot
 Line graph
 Histogram
 Frequency polygon
 Frequency curve
 Ogives
 Scatter plot
 Box and whisker plot
 Diagrams
 Bar diagram
 Simple bar diagram
 Multiple bar diagram
 Component bar diagram
 Percentage bar diagram
 Deviation bar diagram
 Pie diagram
 Doughnut diagram
 Line or Dot Plot

 A way to display data along a number line
 E.g. Given are the distances (m) 17 turtles travelled in
an hour: 24, 27, 21, 25, 23, 21, 26, 27, 24, 25, 21, 23,
25, 24, 24, 25, 27
 Stem and Leaf Plot

 Similar to the line plot except that the number line is
usually vertical, and digits are used instead of dots
 E.g. 20 students got following scores in a chemistry
test:
 69, 84, 52, 93, 61, 74, 79, 65, 88, 63, 57, 64, 67, 72, 74, 55,
82, 61, 68, 77
 Key:
 Line Graph
 A graph that shows information that is connected in
some way (such as change over time)
 E.g. the daily earnings of a store for five days
700
Day Earning 600
s 500
Earnings
400
Mon 300
300
Tues 450 200
Wed 200 100
0
Thur 400 Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri
s Day
 Histogram
 It is a graphical display of data using bars of different
heights
 It consists of contiguous (adjoining) boxes
 It displays the shape and spread of continuous sample
data
 Histogram
 E.g. Distribution of 75 cholera patients by age
Age (Years) No. of Patients 20

18
25-30 14 16
30-35 8
No. of Patients
14
12
35-40 11 10
8
40-45 4 6
45-50 18 4
2
50-55 13 0
25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60
55-60 7
Age (Years)
 Frequency polygon
 It can be created from a histogram or by calculating the
midpoints of the intervals from a frequency distribution
table
 The graph constructed by using lines to join the midpoints
of each interval
 Two types
 Absolute frequency polygon
 Relative frequency polygon
 Absolute frequency polygon

 It has ‘peaks’ that represent the actual number of points
in the associated interval
 E.g. Distribution of 45 patients by age and sex
Age Sex
(years) Males Females
20 - 30 3 2
30 - 40 9 6
40 - 50 7 5
50 - 60 4 3
60 - 70 2 4
Total 25 20
 Absolute frequency polygon

Age Sex Mid-point of
(years) Males Females interval
10
20 - 30 3 2 (20+30) / 2 = 25
9 Males Females 30 - 40 9 6 (30+40) / 2 = 35
8
40 - 50 7 5 (40+50) / 2 = 45
No. of Patients
7
6
50 - 60 4 3 (50+60) / 2 = 55
5 60 - 70 2 4 (60+70) / 2 = 65
4 Total 25 20
3
2
1
0
25 35 45 55 65
Age
Figure: Distribution of 45 patients by age and sex

 Relative Frequency Polygon

 It has peaks that represent the percentage of total data
points falling within the interval
 E.g. Distribution of 45 patients by age and sex
Age Sex
(years) Males Females
20 - 30 3 (12%) 2 (10%)
30 - 40 9 (36%) 6 (30%)
40 - 50 7 (28%) 5 (25%)
50 - 60 4 (16%) 3 (15%)
60 - 70 2 (8%) 4 (20%)
Total 25 (100%) 20 (100%)
 Relative Frequency Polygon

Age Sex Mid-point of
(years) Males Females interval
40 20 - 30 3 (12%) 2 (10%) (20+30) / 2 = 25

Males Females
35 30 - 40 9 (36%) 6 (30%) (30+40) / 2 = 35
30 40 - 50 7 28%) 5 (25%) (40+50) / 2 = 45
% of Patients
25 50 - 60 4 (16%) 3 (15%) (50+60) / 2 = 55

20 60 - 70 2 (8%) 4 (20%) (60+70) / 2 = 65
15 Total 25 (100%) 20 (100%)
10
5
0
25 35 45 55 65
Age

 Frequency Curve
 It is obtained by drawing a smooth and free hand curve
through the mid-points of each interval
10
Males Females
9
Age Sex Mid-point of 8
(years) interval
No. of Patients
Males Females 7
6
5
20 - 30 3 2 (20+30) / 2 = 25
4
30 - 40 9 6 (30+40) / 2 = 35 3
40 - 50 7 5 (40+50) / 2 = 45 2
50 - 60 4 3 (50+60) / 2 = 55 1
0
60 - 70 2 4 (60+70) / 2 = 65 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Total 25 20
Age
 Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

 It is a plot of the cumulative frequency
 Obtained by using lines segments to join the upper
boundary (limit) of the class intervals
 It is also called as Ogive

Age Sex Cumulative
(years) Frequency
Males Females Males Females
120
20 - 30 3 (12%) 2 (10%) 12% 10%
100
30 - 40 9 (36%) 6 (30%) 48% 40%
% of Patients
80 40 - 50 7 (28%) 5 (25%) 76% 65%

50 - 60 4 (16%) 3 (15%) 92% 80%
60
60 - 70 2 (8%) 4 (20%) 100% 100%
40 Total 25 (100%) 20 (100%)
20 Males Females
0
30 40 50 60 70
Age


 Two types
 Less than cumulative frequency curve or less than ogive
 The variables values (class limits) is taken along the X-axis
 The less than cumulative frequency is taken along the Y-axis
 Greater than cumulative frequency curve or greater than
ogive
 The variables values (class limits) is taken along the X-axis
 The greater than cumulative frequency is taken along the Y-axis

 The two ogives are drawn together with common x-
axis
 The points of intersection of the two ogives gives the
median point of the
distribution

 Ogives are used to locate partition values also like
median, quartiles, deciles, percentiles
 Scatter plot
 It uses dots to represent values for two different
numeric variables
 The position of each dot on the horizontal and vertical
axis indicates values for an individual data point
 Scatter plots are used to observe relationships between
variables
 Scatter plot
 E.g. ice cream sales versus the noon temperature on
Ice Cream Sales
Temperature °C
that day ($)
14.2 215
Ice Cream Sales ($) 16.4 325
700 11.9 185
600 15.2 332
500
18.5 406
Sales ($)
400
22.1 522
300
19.4 412
200
100
25.1 614
0 23.4 544
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
18.1 421
Temperature (°C) 22.6 445
17.2 408
 Box and whisker plot

 Also called a box plot
 It displays the five-number summary of a set of data
 These are the minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile,
and maximum
 In a box plot, we draw
 A box from the first quartile to the third quartile
 A vertical line through the box at the median
 The whiskers from each quartile to the minimum or maximum


 E.g. Weights of 10 boxes of raisins (in grams)
25, 28, 29, 29, 30, 34, 35, 35, 37, 38
 Median: (30+34)/2 = 32
 Q1: Median of data points to the left of median = 29
 Q3: Median of data points to the right of median = 35
 Min. = 25
 Max. = 38

 Bar diagram
 Bar diagram consists of a series of rectangular bars of
equal width
 The bars stand on common base line with equal gap
between one bar and another
 The bars may be either horizontal or vertical
 The lengths of the bars are proportional to the
magnitudes (frequency)
 Bar diagram
 Types
 Simple bar diagram
 Multiple bar diagram
 Component bar diagram
 Percentage bar diagram
 Deviation bar diagram
 Bar diagram
 Simple bar diagram
 Used when items have to be compared with regard to a
single characteristic %
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Single Married Divorced Widowed
Marital status
 Bar diagram
 Multiple bar diagram
 Used when there are two or more different comparable sets
of values %
Male
 The bars corresponding 45
40 to
Female
35
the same unit are 30
25
placed
20
together adjacent 15 to one
10
another 5
0
Single Married Divorced Widowed
Marital status
 Bar diagram
 Component bar diagram
 Used when the data have items whose magnitudes have two
or more components
 The bars are divided so that the sub-divisions in height
represent the components
 To distinguish the components, different shades are applied
 Component bars are drawn when a comparison of total
magnitudes along with the components is required
 Bar diagram
 Component bar diagram
 Bar diagram
 Percentage bar diagram
 Used to represent items whose magnitudes have two or
more components
 The comparison of components are expressed as
percentages of the corresponding totals
 The height of all bars equal to 100
 The bars are divided according to the percentage of the
components
 Bar diagram
 Percentage bar diagram
 Bar diagram
 Deviation bar diagram
 Useful for presenting net quantities which have both
positive and negative values
 The positive deviations are presented by bars above the
base line
 The negative deviations are presented by bars below the
base line
 Bar diagram
 Deviation bar diagram
 Pie diagram
 It is a circular statistical graphic
 It is divided into slices to illustrate numerical
proportion
 The arc length of each slice (and consequently its
central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity
it represents
 It is used for small set of data
 Pie diagram
 Doughnut diagram
 A donut chart is essentially a Pie Chart with an area of
the centre cut out
 It drives attention from the area taken by each part to
emphasize the length of arcs
 The blank space also allows displaying some
additional information in the center
 E.g. labels, name of selected category, or chart title
 Doughnut diagram
 Multi-ring doughnut diagram

 It can display more than one data series in one image
 Each ring represents a separate data series
 Multi-ring doughnut diagram

Mathematical presentation
 Summary statistics
 Measures of location
 Measures of central tendency
 Measures of non-central locations
 Measures of dispersion
 Measures of central tendency

 Arithmetic mean (mean)
 Median
 The observation which lies in the middle of the ordered
observation
 Measures of central tendency

 Midrange
 Mode
 The value which occurs with the greatest frequency i.e. the
most common value
 Measures of non-central locations

 Quartiles
 Deciles
 Percentiles
 Measures of dispersion
 Range
 Variance
 Standard déviation
 Semi-interquartile range
 Coefficient of variation
 Standard error

02 Presentation of Data

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02 Presentation of Data

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PRESENTATION OF

 Easy and better understanding of the subject

 Data should be presented in simple form

 Numerical (Tabular) presentation

 What sport do you play?

 Simple frequency distribution Table

 Simple frequency distribution Table

Level of pollution Frequency

 Complex frequency distribution Table

 Complex frequency distribution Table

 Complex frequency distribution Table

 Complex frequency distribution Table

water based on the type and size of industries

 Relative frequency distribution Table

Level of pollution Frequency %

 Relative frequency distribution Table

 Relative frequency distribution Table

 Cumulative frequency distribution Table

 Cumulative frequency distribution Table

 Rules for drawing graphs and diagrams

 Rules for drawing graphs and diagrams

 Difference between graphs and diagrams

 Difference between graphs and diagrams

 Line or Dot Plot

 Stem and Leaf Plot

Age (Years) No. of Patients 20

 Absolute frequency polygon

 Absolute frequency polygon

Figure: Distribution of 45 patients by age and sex

 Relative Frequency Polygon

 Relative Frequency Polygon

40 20 - 30 3 (12%) 2 (10%) (20+30) / 2 = 25

25 50 - 60 4 (16%) 3 (15%) (50+60) / 2 = 55

Figure: Distribution of 45 patients by age and sex

 Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

 Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

80 40 - 50 7 (28%) 5 (25%) 76% 65%

Figure: Distribution of 45 patients by age and sex

 Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

 Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

 Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

 Box and whisker plot

 Box and whisker plot

 Box and whisker plot

 Box and whisker plot

 Multi-ring doughnut diagram

 Multi-ring doughnut diagram

 Measures of central tendency

 Measures of central tendency

 Measures of non-central locations

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