Data acquisition and control

Module 2
Signal and Transducer

NOTE: these handouts are only a highlight of the

material students need to know. It is important that
students read the studied sections in the text book

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DAQ and Control

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DAQ and Control

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Multiprocess Trainer - YTI

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Multiprocess Trainer - YTI

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Contents
1. Classification of signals
2. Sensors vs transducers
3. Transducer characteristics
4. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
5. Thermistors
6. Thermocouples
7. Strain gauges
8. Wheatstone bridges
6
Digital signals: binary signals

• Only 2 states ON/OFF

• On state, signal at
time highest level eg.5v
• OFF states signal at
lowest level eg. 0v
Positive going pulse • Digital pulse train
Negative going pulse
5v signals as special type
of DS

0 time

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 Digital signals :binary signals
(Section 2.1.1 of text book, pages 14-15)

• The information conveyed in a digital train

signal can be determined by:
– The number of pulses that occur
– By the rate at which pulses occur
– By the time between pulses
• Examples:
– Output signal from a flow meter
– Output signal from an optical encoder
– Input signal to a stepper motor

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Optical encoder

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Stepper Motor

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 Analog signals: Analog DC signal
(Section 2.1.2 of text book, pages 15-17)

• Analog DC are static or slowly v

varying
• Information is contained in the
level or amplitude of the signal
at given time not in how level
varies in respect to time time
• As the time of the measurement
made of slowly varying signal is
not critical, a low speed A/D
boards will be capable of v
measuring this class of signal. 8.05v 8.00v
• Eg: Temperature and pressure
monitoring
time

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 Analog signals: Analog AC signals
(Section 2.1.2 of text book, pages 15-17)

• The information conveyed by an analog signal is contained in:

– The level of amplitude of the signal at a given instant
– How the amplitudes varies in respect to time
– The shape of the signal
– Its slope at a given point in time
– The frequency
– Location of signals peaks
• An analog AC signal May vary quickly with respect to time
• The DAQ hardware needed would require:
– An A/D
– A sample clock to time each analog to digital conversion
– A trigger to start and stop measurement
• A high speed A/D board will be required to measure the signal

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 Sensors and transducers
(Section 2.2 of text book, page 17)

• A transducer is a device that converts one form

of energy or physical quantity into another in
accordance with some defined relationship
• If the transducers is the sensing element that
responds directly to the physical quantity to be
measured and forms a part of the instrumentation
or control system, then the transducer is referred to
as a sensor
• The term transducer and sensor are often used
interchangeably

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 Active vs Passive transducers

• Active transducers generate electric current or voltage

directly in response to environmental stimulation. No need
external excitation voltage or currents to operate

• Examples of active transducers are thermocouples and

piezoelectric accelerometers. Thermocouples produce
voltage difference on its terminals that is proportional to the
temperature of the environment.

A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that employs the

piezoelectric effect of certain materials to measure dynamic changes in
mechanical variables (e.g., acceleration, vibration, and mechanical
shock

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Thermocouple

15
Piezzoelectric Accelerometer

16
 Passive Transducer
• Passive transducers produce a change in some passive
electrical quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or
inductance, as a result of stimulation. These usually require
additional electrical energy for excitation.
• A simple example of a passive transducer is a device
containing a length of wire and a moving contact touching
the wire. The position of the contact determines the
effective length of the wire, varying the resistance of the
length of wire. Other examples of passive transducers are
strain gauges, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
Linear Variable Differential Transformer and thermistors.

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Proximity Sensors

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Thermistor (R changes to temperature)

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Strain Gauge (R Changes to stress)

20
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (L Changes to
displacement)

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 Transducers charateristics
(Section 2.3 of text book, pages 17-19)

• Transducers are classified according to the

physical quantity they measure (e.g: temperature,
force, etc.)
• Depends on the application requirements the
following characteristics are to be considered when
selecting a transducer:
– Accuracy
– Sensitivity
– Repeatability
– Range
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 Transducers Accuracy
(Section 2.3 of text book, page 18)
• The accuracy of a transducer describes how close
a measurement is to the actual value of the
process variable being measured
• It describes the maximum error that can be
expected from a measurement taken at any point
within the operating range of the transducer
• Usually the accuracy is provided as a percentage
error over the entire operating range of the
transducer e.g
– ±1% between 20°C and 120°C
– ± 1°C

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 Transducers range
(Section 2.3 of text book, page 18)

• The range is defined as the minimum and

maximum measurable values of a process
within which the defined limits of all other
specified transducer characteristics
(sensitivity, accuracy, repeatability, etc) are
met.
• A thermocouple usually its specified range is
between 0°C and 500°C

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 Transducers Sensitivity
(Section 2.3 of text book, page 18)

• Sensitivity is defined as the amount of

change in the output signal from a
transducer to a specified change in the input
variable being measured i.e.:
• Highly sensitive thermistors may change
resistance by as much as 5% per °C
• Low sensitivity thermocouple produce output
voltage change of only 5µv per °C which is
not sensitive

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 Transducers repeatability
(Section 2.3 of text book, page 18)

• Repeatability indicates how close repeated

measurements of the process variable at the
identical state will be
• High repeatability throughout its working life
is desired of a good transducer

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Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
(R changes to temperature)

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Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
(Section 2.4.1 of text book: Characteristics)
• Temperature sensors
• Generally made from pure or lightly doped metal
• Material used are:
– Platinum used because of its stability over a wide
temperature range (-270°C to 650°C) and is fairly linear
– Tungsten used in very high temperature applications
– Nickel RTD has high resistance (1000Ω)
• RTD resistance increased with the increasing
temperature
• Positive resistance temperature coefficient
• Either wire wound or metal film

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 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
(Section 2.4.1 of text book: Characteristics)

• Metal film RTD has faster response time and

higher sensitivity compared to wire wound RTD
• Metal film RTD also cost less compared to wire
wound RTD
• If RTD element is not mechanically stressed and
is not contaminated by impurities, the device are
stable over a long period, reliable and accurate
• Popular RTD is the platinum film PT100 (DIN
43760 standard) with a nominal resistance of 100
Ω ± 0.1Ω at 0°C

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 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
(Section 2.4.2 of text book: linearity of RTDs)

• The change in resistance of an RTD with respect

to temperature is relatively linear over a wide
temperature range, exhibiting only a slight curve
over the working temperature range
• The error introduced by approximating the
relationship between resistance and temperature
as linear is not significant
• Manufacturers define the temperature coefficient of
RTD by the equation:

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 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
(Section 2.4.2 of text book: linearity of RTDs)
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
R100  R0 
• Where
Alpha ( )   / / C – R0 = resistance at 0°C
100  R0
– R100 = resistance at
100°C
For a given temperature T:

RT  R0 (1  T ) – Eg:PT100 with normal

resistance of 100Ω ±0.1
Ω and an α of 0.00385
Ω/Ω/°C what is the
resistance at 100°C
– Answer:138.3 Ω

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 Measurement circuits and considerations
for RTDs) (Section 2.4.3 of text book: 2 wire RTD)

RL
Iex

+
Voltage drop across
RT lead wire (RL x Iex) VMEAS
-
RL

RL: Resistance in the lead wire, must be small

Measuring device

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 Measurement circuits and considerations
for RTDs) (Section 2.4.3 of text book: 2 wire RTD)
• Two wired RTD excited by a constant current source Iex and
connected to a measuring device
• There will be voltage drop caused by the lead wires equal RLx Iex
• The voltage drop on the wire leads will add to the voltage drop across
the RTD
• Depending on the value of the lead wire resistance compared to the
resistance of the RTD, may result in a significant error in the calculated
temperature
• To make an accurate measurement, the resistance of the RTD must be
large enough
• On the lead wire resistance small enough so that the voltage drop
across the lead wire will be negligible
• Lead wires less than 3 meters for a 100Ω RTD
• Example:2 lead resistance each 0.5 Ω, total 1Ω if α = 0.385 Ω/°C which
means an temp error of 1/0.385 = 2.6 °C

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 Measurement circuits and considerations
for RTDs) (Section 2.4.3 of text book, figure 2.8: 4 wire RTD)
• A better method of excitation and measurement when
wire lead lengths are greater than a few meters in
length
• Common RTD comes with four leads: 2 provides
excitation current and 2 for voltage measurement
• Four wired configuration eliminate the problem
caused by the voltage drop across RL1 and RL4
• Negligible current flow through RL2 and RL3
• So only the voltage across RT of the RTD is
measured

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 Measurement circuits and considerations
for RTDs) (Section 2.4.3 of text book, figure 2.9: 3 wire RTD)
• 3 wired RTD to reduce cost compared to four wired RTD
• Only RL1 add error to the RTD measurement

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 Measurement circuits and considerations
for RTDs) (Section 2.4.3 of text book, self heating)

• Current excitation caused heating that

effects the accuracy of the measurement
• The inaccuracies due to heating can be
reduced
– Minimizing the excitation power
– Exciting RTD only when a measurement is taken
– Calibrating out steady state errors

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 Measurement circuits and considerations
for RTDs) (Section 2.4.3 of text book, self heating)

• Example: PT100 RTD device

self heating coefficient: 0.2°C/mW (200°C/W)
• If Iex = 0.75mA then
Power dissipated W= R Iex2 =(0.75x10-3)2x100
= 56µW
• The temperature rise due to self heating, T
T=56 x10-6x200 = 0.0112 °C

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