MR-SS - Synop. 7.11.2021

b-Continuity and non b-continuity properties
of some special families of graphs
By
Ms. S. SARASWATHI
Under the guidance of

Dr. M. POOBALARANJANI, M.Sc., M.Phil., M.C.A., Ph.D.,
Associate Professor & Head (Retd.)
Post Graduate & Research Department of Mathematics
Seethalakshmi Ramaswami College (Autonomous)
(Affiliated to Bharathidasan University)
Tiruchirappalli - 620 002
10th November 2021
10/11/2021 S. SARASWATHI 1
Outline
 Introduction - Basic Concepts

 Motivation - Literature Survey
 Distance Coloring and -Coloring of graphs
 2-distance -coloring of graphs
 2-distance strong -coloring of graphs
 Exact 2-distance -coloring of graphs
 Exact 2-distance strong -coloring of graphs
 Conclusion
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction – Basic Concepts
 Some Graph Parameters
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Vertex
ProperPartition
coloringof Graphs
and Distance Coloring
Definition 1.1. A proper -coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors to the vertices

of such that no two adjacent vertices are assigned the same color. Equivalently a proper -
coloring of is a partition of the vertex set into disjoint independent sets .
Hence, each independent set is a set of vertices of same color and the chromatic
number is the minimum for which admits a proper -coloring
Definition 1.2. A -distance coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors to vertices
such that every two vertices at distance at most receive distinct colors. i.e., any two
vertices and with receive distinct colors.
The -distance chromatic number of , denoted by is the smallest integer for which
admits a -distance coloring.
Definition 1.3. An exact -distance coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors to
vertices such that every two vertices at distance receive distinct colors. i.e., any two
vertices and with receive distinct colors.
The exact -distance chromatic number of , denoted by is the smallest integer for
which admits a -distance coloring.
b-Coloring
Definition 1.4. A -coloring of by colors is a proper -coloring such that in each color
class, there exists a vertex adjacent to at least one vertex in every other color class. Such a
vertex is called a color dominating vertex.
In other words, if has a proper vertex coloring by colors and the vertex set is
partitioned into color classes where contains vertices of color such that there is a vertex
for each in such a way that has a neighbor in every other color class then such a coloring
is called a -coloring.
The -chromatic number of , denoted by , is the largest integer such that has a -
coloring with colors.
Hence, if has a -coloring with colors, then it has at least color dominating vertices.
Consequently, has at least vertices of degree at least .
It is easy to see that is an upper bound for Later, an improved upper bound for denoted
by was found.
Definition 1.5. Let be the vertex set of such that the vertices are ordered so that . Then
the -degree of is defined by .
Equivalently, the term -degree of is defined as has at least vertices of degree at
least .
Graph and its -coloring
Illustration 1.6. The graph given in figure 1.1 (a), is a bipartite

graph and hence, In and there are 4 vertices of degree 3. Hence,
which leads to . Figure 1.1 (b) shows a 4--coloring of and hence
3 3
3 4
1 2 1 2
4 3
2 3
1
2 1
3
(a) Graph (b) 4--coloring of

Figure 1.2: 3--coloring of
Figure 1.1:Graph and its -coloring given in figure 1.1(a)
Graph and its -coloring (Contd.)
Illustration 1.7. Consider the graph given in example figure 1.3 (a).
This graph is known as Crown graph. It is a bipartite graph and
hence, Further, for all and hence, This gives . Figure 1.3 (b) shows a
4--coloring of and therefore, Hence, it is enough to check the
existence of a 3--coloring of . Hence, there does not exist a 3--
coloring in .
u1 v1 1
1 1
u2 v2 2 2
2 2
u3 v3 3 3
3 3
u4 v4 1
4 4
(a) Crown Graph (b) 4--coloring of

Figure 1.3: Crown Graph and its -coloring Figure 1.4: Partial coloring of Crown
Graph with 3 colors
Definitions and observation

Definition 1.8. For each integer such that , if has a -coloring by -colors, then is said to be a -
continuous graph.
Definition 1.9. The -spectrum of is the set of all integers for which has a -coloring by colors.
Thus, if contains all the integers from to , then is a -continuous graph.
Observation 1.10.
i. If admits a -coloring with colors, then must have at least vertices with degree at least .
ii. Any proper coloring with colors is a -coloring.
iii. If or , then is -continuous.
iv.
Some results and observation based on b-coloring

Proposition 1.11.
i. For ,
ii. For ,
iii. For , ;
iv. For ,
v. For ,
vi. For ,
vii. For ,
Observation 1.12.
viii. If contains an induced path or cycle on at least 5 vertices, then is at least 3.
ix. For a graph
Motivation…
Some of the results in the literature on b-coloring

• F. Kramer and H. Kramer [K11], [K12] introduced the distance coloring in 1969.
• Irving and Manlove [I2] studied a new coloring called a -coloring in 1991.
• The -continuity was introduced by Faik [F1]. He showed in 2004 that chordal graphs
are -continuous.
• Barth, Cohen, Faik [B4] discussed the -spectrum of graphs. They showed that for
any finite integer set , there exists a graph whose -spectrum is in 2007.
• Exact -distance colouring of Graphs were studied by T. N. Janakiraman, M.
Poobalaranjani and A. Senthil Thilak [J4] in 2012.
• The -Chromatic Number of Helm and Closed Helm was obtained by S. K. Vaidya
and M. S. Shukla [V1] in 2014.
• The -chromatic number of Cartesian product of some families of graphs was given
by Balakrishnan, Francis Raj, Kavaskar [B2] in 2014.
CHAPTER-2
2-Distance -Coloring of Graphs
 Introduction
 2-Distance coloring of graphs
 2-Distance -coloring of graph families in
 2-Distance -coloring of graph families in
 2-Distance -continuity
Chapter 2 - 2-Distance -coloring of Graphs
Definitions
Definition 2.1. A 2-distance coloring of a graph is a proper coloring of such that
two vertices at distance atmost 2 receive distinct colors.
That is, if and are two vertices such that , then and receive distinct colors.
Hence, in a 2-distance coloring of , vertices of an inducedreceive 3 distinct
colors.
Definition 2.2. The 2-distance chromatic number is the smallest integer for
which admits a 2-distance coloring with colors.
Definition 2.3. A set is a -distance independent set of a graph , if the distance

between every pair of vertices from is greater than . .The -distance independence
number of is the maximum cardinality over all -distance independent sets in . If ,
then is , the independence number of .
Illustration 2.4.
1 2 4
5
4 3
1 6
Figure 2.1: Graph with a 2-distance coloring Figure 2.2: with 2-distance independent set
Some results on Distance coloring
Observation 2.5. If is any graph, then

i. 2-distance coloring exists in ;
ii. in a 2-distance coloring of , a vertex and its neighbors receive distinct colors;
iii. ;
iv. ;
v. for any subgraph of
Proposition 2.6.
vi. If is a graph of diameter 2, then
vii. If is a complete graph, then
viii. If is an incomplete connected graph, then
Some results on Distance coloring
Proposition 2.7. If is any tree, then
Proposition 2.8.
i. For
ii. For or
Proposition 2.9. For ,

iii.
iv.
Proposition 2.10. For , .
2-Distance -coloring of graphs - Definitions
Definition 2.11. A 2-distance -coloring (or -coloring) of a graph is a -coloring of such that
any two vertices at distance at most 2 receive distinct colors. More explicitly, a -coloring is a
2-distance coloring in which every color class contains a (i.e., contains a vertex which has a
neighbor in every other color class).
In other words, as the name states, a 2-distance -coloring of a graph is a coloring which
is both a -coloring as well as a 2-distance coloring.
Definition 2.12. The 2-distance -chromatic number or simply -number is the largest integer
such that admits a 2-distance -coloring with -colors.
Definition 2.13. A graph which admits 2-distance -coloring is said to be a 2-distance -

colorable graph or simply -colorable graph.
2-Distance -coloring of graphs – Observation and Results
Observation 2.14.
i. Complete graph is -colorable;
ii. -coloring does not exist for all graphs;
iii. There exist both regular and irregular graphs which are -colorable & not -colorable.
Proposition 2.15. If a graphis -colorable, then .
Corollary 2.16. Let be any graph. If , then is not -colorable.
Corollary 2.17. If is -colorable, then the following hold good:

iv. has at least vertices of degree ;
v.
vi. Any vertex of degree is a color dominating vertex.
2-distance -colorable graphs: Some necessary and sufficient conditions
The first theorem states a necessary condition for a -colorable graph.
Theorem 2.18. If is an incomplete 2-colorable graph, then .
Corollary 2.19.
i. Let be an incomplete graph. If has a dominating vertex, then is not -colorable;
ii. For , is not -colorable;
iii. For is not -colorable.

The following theorem gives a sufficient condition for a graph to be a -colorable graph.
Theorem 2.20. If is a graph of order and , then is a -colorable graph.
Results on 2-Distance -coloring of graphs
Theorem 2.21. If is a -regular graph and , then is a -colorable graph.
Corollary 2.22. For ;
Theorem 2.23. Let be an incomplete graph and and together with the condition that there are
exactly vertices of degree . If each is either a vertex of degree or adjacent only to vertices of
degree , then is -colorable.
Theorem 2.24. Suppose is a connected graph of diameter at least and contains exactly
vertices of degree . If each is either of degree or of degree , then is -colorable.
Corollary 2.25. Suppose . If , then is -colorable and . For all other values of , is not -
colorable.
Theorem 2.26. If and are any two graphs in which at least one of them is an incomplete
graph, then is not -colorable.
2-Distance -coloring of graph families in
Proposition 2.28. Let

i. If is not -colorable;
ii. If is -colorable and
Proposition 2.29.
iii. For is not -colorable;
iv. For is not -colorable.
Definition 2.30. For a tree obtained by subdividing either each edge of or at least one and at
most edges of is called a tree.
Theorem 2.31. A tree obtained from is not -colorable.
In this thesis, we introduce a new type of rooted tree called a perfect -ary tree.
Now we define another rooted tree based on degree of its vertices.

Definition 2.32. A perfect -ary tree, is a rooted tree in which all internal vertices are of degree
Δ and all pendant vertices are at the same level.
Figure: 2.15: Perfect Δ-ary tree, Δ= 3
2-Distance -coloring of graph families in (Contd.)
Theorem 2.33. Let be a perfect -ary tree of height . Then is -colorable. Further, every 2-
distance coloring is a -coloring and the converse need not be true.
On the other hand, consider the -coloring of the perfect -ary tree of height 3 and with colors
in figure 2.16. Clearly, it is not a 2-distance coloring.
4
1 3
2
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 4 1 4 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4
Figure 2.16: b-Coloring of a perfect ∆-ary tree of height 3 and ∆=3 with ∆+1 colors
In this section, the -chromatic number of some well known graphs

in are discussed. Since in the corollaries 2.3.2.2 and 2.3.2.8, we
proved that are not -colorable.
Proposition 2.34. For

i. If , then is -colorable and
ii. If , then is not -colorable.
Proposition 2.35. Suppose.

iii. If , is -colorable and
iv. For or is not -colorable.
2-Distance -continuity
• If -coloring exists in a graph, then A graph which admits a -coloring

is a -colorable graph.
• A graph is a 2-distance -continuous graph or simply -continuous

graph, if .
• It can be defined as “A graph is a 2-distance -continuous graph or

simply is -continuous, if is a -colorable graph”.
CHAPTER-3
2-Distance Strong -coloring of Graphs
 Introduction
 2-Distance strong -coloring of graphs: Definitions, Illustrations and some
observations
 2-Distance strong -continuity of graph families in 𝒯
 2-Distance strong -continuity of graph families in
Chapter 3 - 2-Distance Strong -coloring of Graphs
Definitions, Illustrations and some observations

Definition 3.1. In a graph , for , a vertex is said to be an at most k-neighbor, if
Definition 3.2. A set of vertices is said to be an at most -neighborhood (or at most -open
neighborhood) of a vertex if consists of all the vertices which are at distance at most from . It
is denoted by .
i.e.,
An at most -closed neighborhood of is the set
Definition 3.3. In a graph , for, the at most -degree of is defined as the number of vertices
which are at distance at most from and is denoted by .
The at most -degree of a vertex is also called the -degree of .
Definitions, Illustrations and some observations (Contd.)
Observation 3.4. For any , and for any vertex of a graph

i. if then
ii. any neighbor of is an at most -neighbor of , and if then any at most -neighbor of is an at
most -neighbor of ;
iii.
iv.
v. if
vi. .
Definition 3.5. A vertex in a color class partition is said to be a strong color dominating vertex
(or simply -) if it has at least one neighbor or a 2-neighbor (or simply at least one at most 2-
neighbor) in every other color class.
Observation 3.6. Every color dominating vertex is a strong color dominating vertex and the
converse is not true.
Definition 3.7. A 2-distance strong -coloring (-coloring) of a graph is a 2-distance coloring of

such that every color class has at least one vertex which has either a neighbor or a 2-neighbor
(or simply an at most 2-neighbor) in every other color class.
Equivalently, a 2-distance strong -coloring of a graph is a 2-distance coloring of such that
every color class contains a strong color dominating vertex.
Definition 3.8. The 2-distance strong -chromatic number (or simply a -number) of a graph is
the largest for which has a 2-distance strong -coloring with colors.
Definition 3.9. Let be the vertex set of such that the vertices are ordered so that. Then -degree
of , denoted by , is defined by.
In other words, is defined as the has at least vertices whose at most 2 degree is at least
Illustration 3.10.
1 2 3 4 1 2
Figure 3.3: -coloring of
Observation 3.11.
i. If a graph has a 2-distance strong-coloring with colors, then has at least vertices
whose at most 2-degree is at least
ii. Any 2-distance coloring with colors is a 2-distance strong -coloring;
iii. 2-distance strong -coloring exists for all graphs.
iv. A 2-distance -coloring is a 2-distance strong -coloring and the converse is not true.
Proposition 3.12. Ifthen
Observation 3.13. If is any graph, then

i.
ii.
iii. If is -colorable, then
Observation 3.14. Let be a graph with , a -coloring with colors and a pendant vertex.
iv. If is adjacent to a vertex of maximum degree, then is a strong color dominating vertex;
v. If is not adjacent to any vertex of maximum degree, then cannot be a strong color
dominating vertex.
Observation 3.15. Let be a -coloring of a graph andbe the set of all colors used in . Then the
following hold.
vi. is a -
vii. If is a - in and vertices of receive distinct colors, then .
2-Distance strong -coloring of graph families in 𝒯
Proposition 3.16.
(i) For
(ii) For
(iii)For

Theorem 3.17. For a tree obtained from
and .
Theorem 3.18. Let be a perfect -ary tree of height . Then
2-Distance strong -coloring of graph families in
Proposition 3.19.
i. For
ii. For
iii. For
Proposition 3.20. For .

iv.
v.
2-distance strong -continuity of graphs
Definition 3.22. If for each integer, such that has a 2-distance strong -coloring with
colors, then is said to be a 2-distance strong -continuous graph (or simply a -
continuous graph).
Definition 3.23.The 2-distance strong -spectrum or simply -spectrum of a graph is

the set of all integers for which has a 2-distance strong -coloring (or -coloring) with
colors.
has -coloring with colors.
Proposition 3.24. Let be a graph with . Then is 2-distance strong -continuous.
2-Distance strong -continuity of graph families in 𝒯
Proposition 3.25.
i. For is -continuous and ;
ii. For is -continuous and ;
iii. For is -continuous and
.
Theorem 3.26. A tree obtained from is -continuous and .
Theorem 3.27. Let be a perfect -ary tree of height . Then is -continuous and
2-Distance strong -continuity of graph families in
Proposition 3.28.
i. For is -continuous and
ii. For is -continuous and
iii. For is -continuous and
Proposition 3.29.
For, is -continuous and .

2-Distance strong -continuity of graph families in (Contd.)

Proposition 3.30. For is -continuous and
.

.
CHAPTER-4
Exact 2-Distance -coloring of Graphs
 Introduction
 Exact 2-distance coloring of graphs
7/23/2021 R.PICHAILAKSHMI 37
Chapter 4 - Exact 2-Distance -coloring of Graphs
Definitions and some prior results

Definition 4.1. An exact -distance coloring (or an -coloring) of a graph is defined as a
coloring of vertices of such that vertices at distance exactly receive distinct colors.
An exact -distance chromatic number (or an -number) of is the
minimum for which admits an -coloring with colors.
Definition 4.2. The exact -distance graph of is the graph with and two vertices in are
adjacent if and only if they are at distance exactly in.
Though by putting in the above definitions, exact 2-distance coloring and its parameter
are obtained, as the thesis is based on 2-distance and exact 2-distance coloring, the definition
of exact 2-distance coloring and its parameter are defined again.
Definitions and some prior results (Contd.)

Definition 4.3. An exact 2-distance coloring (or an -coloring) of a graph is defined as a
coloring of vertices of in which vertices are at distance exactly 2 receive distinct colors.
Definition 4.4. An exact 2-distance chromatic number (or an -number) of is the minimum
for which admits an -coloring with colors.
has an -coloring with colors
Definition 4.5. The color classes of an -coloring are called -color classes.
Observation 4.6. Let be a connected graph of order. Then the followings hold:
(i) If , then
(ii)
Observation 4.7.
(i) An -coloring is not a proper vertex coloring. adjacent vertices may receive the same color;
(ii) A given class of graphs need not to have unique
(iii)An -color class need not be independent;
(iv)If is any induced sub graph of , then the inequality holds good;
(v) If is any subgraph, the inequality need not be true.
Observation 4.8. Let be any graph. Then, the following hold.
i. Any 2-distance coloring of a graph is an -coloring of and the converse is not true;
ii. .
Proposition 4.7.
i. ;
ii. If is any tree of order , then .
iii. For ;
iv. For ;
Lemma 4.8. If is a connected incomplete graph of order then

and the bounds are sharp.
Lemma 4.9. If a graph has a vertex such that is independent, then
Exact 2-distance coloring of some graph families

Theorem 4.11. Suppose is a connected 3-chromatic and unicyclic graph. Then if and only if
is obtained from and at most three disjoint paths by adding an edge between a vertex of and
an end vertex of at most one path.
Observation 4.12. For , if is given an -coloring, then a color can be given to at most two
adjacent vertices.
Exact 2-distance coloring of some graph families (Contd.)

Definitions, Observations and Illustrations
Definition 4.15. An exact 2-distance -coloring (or an -coloring) of a graph is an exact 2-

distance coloring (-coloring) of such that each color class contains a vertex that has a 2-
neighbor in all other color classes.
Definition 4.16. An exact 2-distance -chromatic number (or an -number) of is the largest
integer such that has an -coloring with colors.
has an -coloring with colors.
Definition 4.17. A vertex which has a 2-neighbor in all other color classes is called an exact 2-
distance color dominating vertex (or an-). If is an -of color , then it is called an --
Definition 4.18. The term -degree denoted by of is defined as the largest integer such that
has at least vertices having at least 2-neighbors.
has at least vertices whose -degree is at least .
Definitions, Observations and Illustrations (Contd.)
Definition 4.19. An exact 2-distance -coloring (or an -coloring) of a graph is an exact 2-

distance coloring (-coloring) of such that each color class contains a vertex that has a 2-
neighbor in all other color classes.
Definition 4.20. An exact 2-distance -chromatic number (or an -number) of is the largest
integer such that has an -coloring with colors.
has an -coloring with colors.
Definition 4.21. A vertex which has a 2-neighbor in all other color classes is called an exact 2-
distance color dominating vertex (or an-). If is an -of color , then it is called an --
Definition 4.22.The term -degree denoted by of is defined as the largest integer such that has
at least vertices having at least 2-neighbors.
has at least vertices whose -degree is at least .
Definitions, Observations and Illustrations (Contd.)
Illustration 4.23.
4 4 2 3
1 1 2
Figure 4.22: A graph with

Observation 4.24. Any minimum -coloring of a graph is an -coloring.
Observation 4.25.
(i) -coloring exists for all graphs;
(ii) For a graph ;
(iii) If is a disconnected graph with connected components , then
Observation 4.26. Let be a connected graph.

i. If is a connected graph, then ;
ii. If is a disconnected graph, then
Exact 2-distance -coloring of graph families in 𝒯

Proposition 4.27.
i. For ;
ii. For .
Theorem 4.29. For a tree defined from , .
Theorem 4.30. Let be a perfect -ary tree of height . Then for
Exact 2-distance -coloring of graph families in
Theorem 4.32. For
Proposition 4.33. For , if is an -coloring of , then

i. if the color class }, then for any -
i.e., each - is a 2-neighbor of
ii. if }, then both cannot be -color dominating vertices;
iii. for if }, then ;
iv. if and are -- and -- respectively, then and
;
Exact 2-distance -coloring of graph families in
Lemma 4.34. If and in an -coloring of then, .
Corollary 4.35. In the number of -color dominating vertices whose color appear only once cannot
exceed .
Definition 4.36. For positive integers and , if a graph can be partitioned into vertex disjoint ’s and
, (at least one of and is a positive integer), then is said to have a -partition of order (.
Theorem 4.37. For ,
Theorem 4.38. For
Exact 2-distance -Continuity of graphs-Definitions and Illustrations
Definition 4.40. If for each integer satisfying has an -coloring by

colors, then is said to be an exact 2-distance -continuous graph (or -
continuous graph) or simply is -continuous.
Definition 4.41. The exact 2-distance -spectrum (or -spectrum) of is

defined by the set of all such that has an -coloring by colors.
In other words, has an -coloring with colors
Thus, if contains all the integers from or then is -continuous.
Exact 2-distance -Continuity of graphs-Illustrations
Illustration 4.42. For the closed Helm and Figure 4.35 shows the -coloring of with 4, 5
and 6 colors. From the figure, it is clear that is -continuous and therefore, .
5
2
1
1
5
3 4 1
4 1
4
3
1
1
3 2
2 2
2
3 3
4
(a) 4--coloring of (a) 5--coloring of (a) 6--coloring of
Figure 4.35: -continuous graph

Thus, an -continuous graph exists.
Exact 2-Distance -continuity of graph families in 𝒯

Proposition 4.43.
i. For is -continuous and ;
ii. For is -continuous and ;
iii. For is -continuous and .

Proposition 4.44. A tree obtained from is -continuous and
Theorem 4.45. Let be a perfect -ary tree of height . Then is -continuous and
Exact 2-distance -Continuity of graph families in

.
Theorem 4.47. For is an -continuous, and if then and for
Exact 2-distance -Continuity of graph families in
Proposition 4.48.
i. For is not -continuous and .
ii. For is -continuous and
Proposition 4.49.
iii. For is not -continuous and
iv. For is -continuous and
CHAPTER-5
Exact 2-Distance Strong -coloring of Graphs
 Introduction
 Exact 2-distance strong -coloring of Graphs: Definitions, Illustrations and some
Observations
 Exact 2-Distance strong -coloring of the Tree families in 𝒯
 Exact 2-distance strong -coloring of the class of graphs

Chapter 5 - Exact 2-Distance Strong -coloring of Graphs
Definitions, Illustrations and some Observations
Definition 5.1. An exact 2-distance strong -coloring (or -coloring) of a graph is an -coloring
of such that each color class contains a strong color dominating vertex.
Definition 5.2. An exact 2-distance strong -chromatic number (or -number) of is the largest
integer such that has-coloring with colors.
-coloring with colors}.
Illustration 5.3.
1 2
3
3
4 4
Figure 5.1: Graph G with a 4-e2sb-coloring
Definitions, Illustrations and some Observations (Contd.)
Relationship between four colorings

2-distance coloring + = 2-distance -coloring (-coloring) ---------- (5.1)
( 2-distance coloring +-coloring = 2-distance -coloring) ---------- (5.2)
2-distance coloring + - = 2-distance strong -coloring (-coloring) ----- (5.3)
-coloring +- = Exact 2-distance -coloring (-coloring) --------- (5.4)
-coloring + - = Exact 2-distance strong -coloring (-coloring) ------(5.5)
Observation 5.4.
(i) A -coloring (if exists) is an -coloring and hence,
(ii) A -coloring is an -coloring and hence,
(iii)An -coloring is an -coloring and hence,
(iv)Any minimum -coloring of a graph is an -coloring of
(v) Converse of (i) to (iii) need not be true.
Proposition 5.5. For a graph ,
Proposition 5.6. If is a graph of , then .

Exact 2-Distance strong -coloring of the Tree families in 𝒯
Proposition 5.7.
i. For
ii. For
iii. For .
Theorem 5.8. For the tree obtained from ,.
Theorem 5.9. Let be a perfect -ary tree of height . Thenfor
Exact 2-distance strong -coloring of the class of graphs
Proposition 5.10.
i. For
ii. For
Exact 2-distance strong -coloring of the class of graphs
Exact 2-distance strong -continuity of graphs
If or , then has an -coloring for each It is necessary to find graphs (if exist) for which There
exists a graph for which and hence, defining this new distance -continuity as exact 2-distance
strong -continuity (or -continuity) is meaningful. Consequently, the corresponding -spectrum
is also introduced.
In this section, we give a simple method to find .
Definition 5.15. If for each integer satisfying , has an -coloring by colors, then is said to be
an exact 2-distance strong -continuous (or -continuous) graph.
Definition 5.16. The exact 2-distance strong -spectrum (or -spectrum) of is defined as the set
of all such that has an -coloring by colors.
In other words, -
Thus, if contains all the integers from , then is -continuous.
Illustration 5.17. Now and from proposition 3.2.3.1, Hence, Figures 5.23 (a), (b) and (c)
respectively show a 2--coloring, 3--coloring and 4--coloring of . Hence, is an -continuous
graph. contains all the integers from , then is -continuous.
1 1 1
4 2
2 1 1 2
2 3
3
(a): 2--coloring of (b): 3--coloring of (c): 4--coloring of
Figure 5.23: An exact 2-distance strong b-continuous graph
A Simple Method 5.18.

If is any graph, then from observation (ii) and (iii) of 5.2.1.4, a -coloring and an -coloring are
-coloring. Hence, if then has a --coloring and hence, . Thus Clearly . Recall that . Hence, to
prove -continuity or to find , we do the following.
(i) Find all and .
(ii) Establish a --coloring of for the obtained in (i).
Hence, if there is no such that and , then .
Exact 2-distance strong-Continuity of the class (𝒯) of Trees
Proposition 5.19. For are -continuous and.
Proposition 5.21. Forare -continuous and.
Theorem 5.22. A tree obtained from is -continuous and .
Theorem 5.23. Let be a perfect -ary tree of height . Thenfor

then is -continuous and .
Exact 2-distance strong-Continuity of the class of graphs
Proposition 5.24.
i. For is -continuous and
ii. For , all are -continuous
and .
Proposition 5.25.
For
Proposition 5.26.For are - continuous

and .
Exact 2-distance strong-Continuity of the class of graphs
Proposition 5.27. For are - continuous
and
Proposition 5.28. For , are -continuous
and
CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION
Chapter 7- Conclusion
Summary of all chapters
• Cocoloring is a growing concept in the field of graph theory and so far an

attempt on combining domination and cocoloring is not known.
• Also there are no results relating domination and cocoloring and consequently
domination and cocoloring parameters.
• We have combined the concept of domination and cocoloring and defined two
new cocoloring.
• Their corresponding cochromatic parameters are also defined.
• Other than that,four new cocoloring variants are introduced and general upper
and lower bounds are obtained for arbitrary graphs and exact bounds are
obtained for standard graphs.
• Graphs are classified based on their splitting graph. New inequalities are obtained
relating z(G) with other graph parameters such as 𝛳(G) , 𝛾 (G), and 𝜒 (G).
• Further, 3-chromatic graphs with z(G) = 2 are characterized.
• The definitions of star partition, path partition and cycle partition of the vertex
set of a graph motivated to combine the concepts of these various partitions
together with cocoloring
• These coloring with the condition on the 3rd parameter r gives three new
cocoloring called as star cocoloring, path cocoloring and cycle cocoloring of a
graph.
• In star, path and cycle partition problem, order of the star, path and cycle are not
specified.
• Their respective cochromatic parameters are also defined.
• The concept of vertex partition having sets of equal cardinality

stimulated another cocoloring called as strong cocoloring.
Subsequently, the corresponding graph parameter strong
cochromatic number is also introduced.Cocoloring and variants of
cocoloring on some graph operations and graph products were
studied and results were obtained.
• The bounds of various cochromatic parameters on join, corona and
Cartesian product of two graphs are discussed. This property helps to
generalize many cochromatic bounds
Future studies
All the partitions introduce in this thesis are vertex partition, all these
concepts can be extended to edge partition.
The cochromatic parameter z(G) of a graph is same as that of the
cochromatic parameter of the complement of G, as the partition
contains only independent sets and cliques whose complements are
cliques and independent sets respectively. Since, the complement of a
star, path and cycle need be the same class, these cocoloring properties
can be further explored in the complement of a graph.
Any parameter study leads to Nordhaus-Gaddum type of results. They
can be studied.
Applications
Applications
Some application in the field of electrical engineering
The system called Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) system is

one of the graph partition problems in order to reduce the
connections between circuits in designing VLSI. The main objective
of this partitioning is to reduce the VLSI design complexity by
splitting them into a smaller component.
Another goal of a good partition is to reduce the number of
connection among the circuit components.Here vertices are cells and
edges are wires between them.
In Electronic engineering, the concept of cliques helps to analyse
the communications networks and describe an application of cliques
in finding a hierarchical partition of an electronic circuits into
smaller sub units
Applications
Some application in the field of network
In any networking system, there is a main server controlling the

whole system. While designing any network, ultimate objective is to
optimize the usage, reduce the number of checking points and a
place to monitor everything and everyone and to communicate with
them.
In some network, in certain areas all connections are totally
interlinked and some place they are total independent and linked
only with the main server.
If the network is represented by a graph with vertices representing
the service centers and edges representing the connection, finding a
dominating cocoloring and γ-cocoloring of the graph solves the
problem.
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PUBLICATIONS
Publications
Research papers published in SCOPUS INDEX journals
M.Poobalaranjani, & R.Pichailakshmi , “Dominating Cocoloring of

Graphs’’ which has published in ‘International Journal of Innovative
Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE), ISSN: 2278–3075
(Online), Volume-9 Issue-1, November 2019, Page No. 2545-2547.
M.Poobalaranjani, & R.Pichailakshmi,” Cocoloring Classification

of Splitting graphs of Snake graphs”, Compliance Engineering Journal
Volume(CEJ) 10, Issue 11, November 2019 ISSN NO: 0898-3577 Page
No.300-305.
Publications
Research papers published in UGC-Care list journals
Dr. M. Poobalaranjani, & S. Saraswathi, “Exact 2-Distance b-Coloring

and Exact 2-Distance b-Continuity of Helm Graph 𝑯𝒏”, YMER // ISSN :
0044-0477, VOLUME 20 : ISSUE 10 - 2021, ISSN NO: 2319-3786, Page
no.62-72.
Dr. M. Poobalaranjani, & S. Saraswathi, “ 2-distance strong b-coloring

of Perfect 𝜟-ary Trees”, YMER // ISSN : 0044-0477, VOLUME 20 :
ISSUE 10 - 2021, ISSN NO: 2319-3786, Page no.196-206.
Publications
Research papers published
M.Poobalaranjani, & R.Pichailakshmi Strong Co-chromatic

number of Some well known graphs, International journal of
engineering science,advance computing and bio-
technology,vo8,2017, 2249-5592, 30-41
M,Poobalaranjani and R.Pichailakshmi, Classification of Splitting

Graph of Some Special Families of Graphs, Jamal Academic
Research Journal, Feb-2016, Proceeding of Jamal 2016, ISSN 0973-
0303 , 47-50
THANK YOU
Maximum VS
Minimum
2-distance coloring +
cdv
= 2-distance b-coloring
2-distance coloring + scdv
= 2-distance strong b-
coloring
Exact 2-distance coloring
+ e2-cdv
= Exact 2-distance b-
coloring
Exact 2-distance coloring
+ s-cdv
= Exact 2-distance strong
b-coloring
𝑐𝑑𝑣
-
-

Maximum VS Minimum


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b-Continuity and non b-continuity properties

of some special families of graphs

Under the guidance of

 Introduction - Basic Concepts

 Introduction – Basic Concepts

 Some Graph Parameters

Definition 1.1. A proper -coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors to the vertices

Graph and its -coloring

Illustration 1.6. The graph given in figure 1.1 (a), is a bipartite

(a) Graph (b) 4--coloring of

Graph and its -coloring (Contd.)

(a) Crown Graph (b) 4--coloring of

Definitions and observation

Some results and observation based on b-coloring

ix. For a graph

Some of the results in the literature on b-coloring

2-Distance -Coloring of Graphs

Definition 2.3. A set is a -distance independent set of a graph , if the distance

Some results on Distance coloring

Observation 2.5. If is any graph, then

Some results on Distance coloring

Proposition 2.7. If is any tree, then

Proposition 2.9. For ,

2-Distance -coloring of graphs - Definitions

Definition 2.13. A graph which admits 2-distance -coloring is said to be a 2-distance -

2-Distance -coloring of graphs – Observation and Results

Proposition 2.15. If a graphis -colorable, then .

Corollary 2.16. Let be any graph. If , then is not -colorable.

Corollary 2.17. If is -colorable, then the following hold good:

2-distance -colorable graphs: Some necessary and sufficient conditions

The first theorem states a necessary condition for a -colorable graph.

Theorem 2.18. If is an incomplete 2-colorable graph, then .

Theorem 2.20. If is a graph of order and , then is a -colorable graph.

Results on 2-Distance -coloring of graphs

Theorem 2.21. If is a -regular graph and , then is a -colorable graph.

Corollary 2.22. For ;

2-Distance -coloring of graph families in

Proposition 2.28. Let

Theorem 2.31. A tree obtained from is not -colorable.

2-Distance -coloring of graph families in

Now we define another rooted tree based on degree of its vertices.

Figure: 2.15: Perfect Δ-ary tree, Δ= 3

2-Distance -coloring of graph families in (Contd.)

2-Distance -coloring of graph families in

In this section, the -chromatic number of some well known graphs

Proposition 2.34. For

Proposition 2.35. Suppose.

• If -coloring exists in a graph, then A graph which admits a -coloring

• A graph is a 2-distance -continuous graph or simply -continuous

• It can be defined as “A graph is a 2-distance -continuous graph or

2-Distance Strong -coloring of Graphs

 2-Distance strong -coloring of graphs: Definitions, Illustrations and some

 2-Distance strong -continuity of graph families in 𝒯

 2-Distance strong -continuity of graph families in

Definitions, Illustrations and some observations

An at most -closed neighborhood of is the set

The at most -degree of a vertex is also called the -degree of .

Definitions, Illustrations and some observations (Contd.)

Observation 3.4. For any , and for any vertex of a graph

Definitions, Illustrations and some observations (Contd.)

Definition 3.7. A 2-distance strong -coloring (-coloring) of a graph is a 2-distance coloring of

Definitions, Illustrations and some observations (Contd.)