Swine production

Course Objectives
• At the end of this course trainee will be able to
• Design the major breeding programs for swine,
• Describe the purpose of swine production,
• Know the role of genetics in swine production.
• Manage swine for reproductive efficiency.
• Feeding practice for different classes of swine.
• Prevent swine disease
• Control swine disease
• Design different housing systems in relation to local
environment
• Discuss the trend in swine industry, including factors that will
influence the industry in the future.
 Introduction
• The word pig,swine,and hog are all genetic
terms with regard to gender,size,or breed.
• Pig originated from Eurasian wild pig.
• Atypical pig has large head with long snout
which is straitened by a special prenasal bone
and disc cartilage.
 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction

• General Terminologies
• Swine:- american term for pigs
• Boar:- a mature male pig
• Sow:- a mature female pig
• Growers:- young pig of either sex from 10-20 weeks
• Gilt:- young female pig ready for mating >20 weeks
• Weaned:- (mother) from 5-8 weeks
• Piglet: - the baby or young pig of either sex.
• Farrowing:- art of giving birth or parturition
• Fatteners:- old s reared for the market
• Hog/Barrow:- caspigtrated male pig
• In-sow:- pregnant sow
• Dry-sow:- non-pregnant sow
• Pork:- meat of pigs
• Lard:- pigs fat
• Bacon:- salted pig meat
• Litter size:- number of piglets in a litter
• Litter:- piglets in a single farrowing
• Gestation: another word for pregnancy period. 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks
and 3 days)
• Weaning:- separation of sow
• Castration: - removal of testicles of the male pigs. Better done before
weaning.
• Conformation: - physical form, shape and overall appearance of an animal.
• Creep feeding: - feeding of piglets with special feed high in protein.
• Breeding:- art of mating
• Mortality:- death
• Pen:- housing for pigs
• Runt:-Asmall or weak pig in litter.
 1.1 Purpose and potential of swine production

• The pig population in Ethiopia was estimated to be

29,000 heads representing 0.1% of African pig
population.
• In many rural parts of Ethiopia, pig production was
characterized by extensive production system.
• Small scale pig production is a very recently
introduced economic activity in Ethiopia including
Tigray region, north Ethiopia.
• The domestic pig is an animal which has been very
much neglected by the scientific community in
Ethiopia.
• Pig meat (pork) is a very important source of
animal protein in human diets.
• Pig rearing is popular in many parts of Nigeria,
which has the highest pig population in Africa.
• Commercial production under semi-intensive
conditions is becoming more popular because
of its favorable rate of return on investments.
 1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of Swine Production

• Advantages of Swine Production

• Pigs are well adapted to both specialized and
diversified farming
• They have quick returns.
• The investment in swine breeding stock and in
equipment may be relatively small .
• Pig production is an efficient way of producing meat.
• Swine can be raised on small or large farms and in
small or large numbers.
• Pigs can be raised on pasture where they will not
require expensive housing and equipment.
• The labor requirements in pig production are low as
one person can manage a large swine-breeding herd.
• With good selection of the breeding stock, pigs carry a
big advantage over the other livestock due to the
multiple fetuses they carry and therefore giving a big
number of young ones.
• Pigs suffer less from metabolic and nutritional diseases.
This is because pigs can feed on things ranging from
grass as herbivores to meat as carnivores do.
• In addition to being omnivorous pigs enjoy digging the
soil, with their snout and they access the minerals in
the soil to meet their nutritional requirements.
 Disadvantage of Swine Production
• Inadequate additional room service(need
• High feed prices.
• Cultural and religious taboo on marketing and consumption of pork
• Low quality feeds from local suppliers.
• Unavailability of water on site and land for expansion.
• Lack of production skills due to inadequacy of extension service;
• Pests and diseases.
• Inadequate slaughter facilities.
• Unorganized marketing.
• High utility costs such as water and electricity.
• Un productive stock probably due to poor quality stock supplied or
poor management practices.
• Inadequate supply of breeding stock.
 CHAPTER TWO
1.2. Domestication and Zoological classification of
swine
2.1. Domestication
• The domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus or only Sus
domesticus), often called swine, hog.
• Simply  pig when there is no need to distinguish it from
other pigs, is a domesticated large.
• Pig is likely to have occurred first in the Near East ~9000 B.C
• occurred repeatedly from local populations of wild boars
• The wild boar is widespread in Eurasia and occurs in
Northwest Africa;
• At least 16 different subspecies has been existence
 2.2. Zoological classification

History of the pig

Place in the animal kingdom:
Phylum: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Sub-order: Suina
(hippos & peccaries)
Family: Suidae
(pigs; babyrousa, warthog, etc.)
Genus: Sus
(bearded pig, pigmy hog, warty hog, etc.)
Species: scrofa
• With around 1 billion individuals alive at any
time.
• The domesticated pig is one of the most
numerous large mammals on the planet.
• Pigs are omnivores and can consume a wide
range of food, similar to humans.
 Description and behavior
• A typical pig has a large head
• long snout which is strengthened by a special pre
nasal bone and by a disk of cartilage at the tip.
• The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food
and is a very acute sense organ.
• Four hoofed toes on each trotter (foot),
• with the two larger central toes bearing most of
the weight,
• The outer two also being used in soft ground.
• Occasionally, caged mother pigs may savage
their own piglets. Often if they become severely
stressed.
• Some attacks on newborn piglets are non-fatal.
• It is estimated that 50% of piglet fatalities are
due to the mother attacking,
• or unintentionally crushing, the newborn pre-
weaned animals.
 Habitat
• The wild pig (Sus scrofa) can take advantage of
any forage resources.
• Therefore, it can live in virtually any productive
habitat that can provide enough water to
sustain large mammals such as pigs.
 Diet and foraging
• Pigs are omnivore, which means that they consume both
plants and animals.
• In the wild, they are foraging animals, primarily eating
leaves, grasses, roots, fruits, and flowers.
• In confinement, pigs are fed mostly corn and soybean meal
with a mixture of vitamins and minerals.
• Traditionally they were raised on dairy farms and called
"mortgage lifters" due to their ability to use the excess milk
as well as whey from cheese and butter making combined
with pasture.
• Older pigs will consume three to five gallons of water/day.
 CHAPTER THREE
3. Breeds of swine, their distribution and classification

3.1. Breeds of swine

Native Breeds(Local Breeds)
• small body size compared to other exotic and crosses
pig types.
• There name varies from region to region, for
example: Jangali Bandel / Wild Boar, Pygmi Bandel,
Hurra, Banmpudke, Chwanche, Pakhribas Black Pig
and Dharane Kalo Banggur.
 1. Jangli Bandel / Wild Boar
 Found in the wild throughout the country, of
Nepal.
Height ; 90 – 95 cm,
Weight; 200 - 250kg
 Color; Brown black with thick hair on the body
Herd comprises ; 6 – 30 heads up to 3 generation.
 Conceive Oct – Dec,
 Farrowing Feb – April,
 Gestation period 115 days, Litter size; 4 – 6,
 Piglets look very different in appearance and in
color strips at an early stage.
Jangli Bandel / Wild Boar
 2. Pygmi Bandel
• Found in northern India, Bhutan, and Nepal.
• Smallest, adult males average 65 cm long and 25 cm tall.
• Females are slightly smaller.
• Males average 8.5 kg in weight.
• Coat colour have blackish brown hair over gray-brown skin.
• Reproduction is seasonal
• The birth peak coincides with the monsoon(heavey rain) in
late April and May.
• Gestation is approximately 100 days and litters size 2 to 6,
• Sexual Maturity at 13 to 33 months and live 10 to 12 years
in the wild.
• Small family 5 to 20 members.
 3. Hurra
• Found in throughout Terai of Nepal, Kept under
scavenging systems,
• Their coats have brown coat on the neck portion.
• Reached adultery at 226 days,
• Average litter size is 5.72
• weaning size is 5.14
• birth weight 700gm.
• Matured males average 45 and female 49 kg live
weight.
• Resistance to several diseases and parasites.
Hurra breed
 4. Chwanche
• Found in across the mid mount of Nepal.
• Kept under semi-intensive systems.
• Mostly found in black color.
• Reached adultery at 219 days
• Gestation period is 114 days with farrowing interval of
222days.
• Average litter size is 7.33 and weaning size is 6.0
• birth weight 800 gm.
• Matured males average 24 and female 32 kg live
weight.
• Resistance to several diseases and parasites
Chwanche breed
 5. Banmpudke
• Bampudke is the domesticated form of Jangali Bandel.
• Smallest domesticated
• Color varies red – brownish to black.
• Reached adultery at 187 days,
• Gestation period is 114 days with farrowing interval of
138 days.
• Average litter size is 4.7 and weaning size is 3.4 with
birth weight 650 gm.
• Matured males average 20 and female 19 kg live
weight.
• Resistance to several diseases and parasites.
Banmpudke
 6. Pakhribas Black Pig
• Found through Nepal
• Three ways crossing between Saddleback, Fayun
and Tamworth.
• Black in color.
• Average litter size is 9.4 and birth weight is 1.0 kg.
• Matured male average 170 and female 160 kg live
weight.
• Resistance to several diseases and parasites, and
superior over.
Pakhribas Black Pig
 Dharane Kalo Banggur
• Black pig found in the eastern terai and hills of
Nepal.
• Long body, large ear dropping upward.
• Highly prolific, average litter size 8 – 10 with high
weaning rate.
• Resistance to several disease and parasites.
• Easily reared on locally available feed resources
and crop by products.
• Perfect for semi-intensive systems
Dharane Kalo Banggur
 2. Exotic Breeds
• The most common pig breeds for commercial pig production are
• Yorkshire
• Landrace
• Hampshire
• Duroc, and Tibetan
• Tamworth and Meishan breeds and
• Their crosses.
• Produce lean meat combined with efficient feed conversion (3 kg of
good feed is needed to produce 1 kg of pork). Compared to local pig
breeds,
These commercial breeds,
• less resistant to diseases
• suffer more from hot weather and low quality feeds.
• Pure exotic breeds generally do not perform well in rural pig
production systems.
 1. Yorkshire
• white
• Long body
• Erect ears
• Good mothers
• Live weight of a mature male 300 – 450 and
female 250 - 350 kg.
• High prolificacy, with a litter size of 12, weaning
percent of > 70, and 7 pairs of teats.
• Widely used for upgrading local breeds
Yorkshire
 2. Landrace
• White
• Large drooping ears
• long body
• Good mothers.
• One of the newest breeds of a Danish origin
• Having the highest number of pigs per litter
• Average live weight of matured male is 310 – 400 kg
• Female is 250 – 330 kg.
• Good for Bacon production.
• High prolificacy, average litter size of 11 with a good
weaning rate.
Landrace
 3. Hampshire
 black, white belt, muscular.
 Average live weight of matured male 300kg
and female is 250 kg.
• Good for Bacon production.
• High prolificacy, with a litter size of 9 with high
weaning rate.
Hampshire
 4. Duroc
• Red , muscular,
• Partially drooping ears
• Desirable as sires.
• Grow the fastest out of all the other breeds.
• Average live weight of matured male 300 kg
and female is 250 kg.
• High prolificacy, with a litter size of 9 with
high weaning rate
Duroc
 5. Tibetan
• Adapted to the high hills, cold climate and to being on pasture
all year round.
• Light body weight (mature wt about 35kg
• Black hair coat, With long and dense bristles
• Highly developed digestive organs.
• The length of the intestine is about 36 times its own body
length.
• Ability to deposit fat in the body.
• The internal and visceral fat is about 15 percent of bodyweight.
• Muscles with a marble appearance and meat with a special
flavor.
• Low prolificacy.
• Average litter size of 5, weaning percent of 69, and 5 pairs of
teats.
TIBETAN
 6. Tamworth

• Ginger, golden red to dark red colored

• Long head, prick ears, a straight face and
snout
• a long, narrow body.
• Mature boar may weigh 245 – 265 kg and sow
200 – 300 kg.
• They produce smaller litters than other
commercial breeds.
Tam worth
 7. Meishan

• Developed in China and characterized by:

• A black colored breed
• Short legs
• Big stomach, deep back and very ugly face
• Very high prolificacy
• A litter size of 14 -17
• Average birth weight 900gm
• 8-9 pairs of teats.
• An adult male weight about 450 kg
• female weight 350 kg average.
• Found in eastern Nepal.
Meishan
 3. Common Swine Breeds

• There are over 90 recognized breeds

• An estimated 230 varieties of pigs in the world.
• These can be grouped into indigenous and modem exotic types.
• Hampshire breed:
black in color with a white belt around the shoulder fore quarters.
 It is a medium size breed
• Originated from Southern England.
• It has a straight face, erects ears, good nursing ability
• Produces an excellent lean carcass.
• The sows are prolific, good mothers and possess above average
milking ability.
 Large white breed (Yorkshire)
• White in color, has erect ears and a ditched face It
originated from Yorkshire, England.
• Although it is not quick in maturing, it is a good feed
converter.
Landrace breed:
• white in color
• long and big body that has deep sides.
• It has a straight snout and loped ears which cover most
of the face.
• Originated from Denmark and has been widely used for
cross breeding especially with the large white to
produce prolific breeding sows.
• The breed is mainly used for bacon.
 Duroc breed
• This breed is mahogany to red in color.
• Good mothering ability.
• It is resistant to stress and is adaptable to
various environmental conditions
• usefull in crossbreeding programs
 • Crossbreed
• Cross breeding is practiced because it combines
the desirable traits in the parent breeds into
one animal.
• The major traits target to improve in a
crossbreeding program include,
• fast growth rate
• Good feed efficiency
• Resistant to diseases
• Good litter size and mothering ability.
 Indigenous breeds
• They are local pigs
• Kept in villages have arise as a result of improper management of
the exotic or crossbred pigs.
• It is only those that can survive the poor management practice
that stay.
• survive on low quality feeds
• Are resistant to some diseases.
• However, such pigs have low growth rate.
• Modest size
• Adults reaching 100kg maximum but rarely weigh more than
60kg at one year of age
• They are sexually early maturing and females may show first
estrus as early as three months of age.
• black brown or occasionally spotted but rarely white.
• Indigenous sows show excellent mothering ability.
 Assignment of swine production
1. Discuss Swine production system in
1. farrow-to-finish
2. feeder pig
3. feeder pig finishing production systems.
2. What are factor that limited the distribution and
consumption of swine?
3. List and differentiate local breed and exotic breed?
4. Discuss selection method of swine for breeding
purpose ?
5. Discuss breeding system of swine ?
 Chapter 4
4.1 System of swine production
 The common systems of keeping pigs include the
following:
 1. Extensive or Free-Range (Scavengers) 
• Traditional method
• The system is cheap as it requires little investment.
• It also requires minimal management.
• Each family keeps a few (one to three) sows per herd
• Feed costs on range system may be about 20-25% less
than with intensive rearing method.
• No special housing other than for night shelter is
required
• Minimum disease control.
•  feeds given are kitchen wastes, farm by-
products such as cassava peels, barns of cereals,
fruit pulps and maize cobs.
• This technique of supplementary feeding to pigs
makes them come back home daily to the farmer.
• Local breeds of pigs predominate the free range
system because they are more highly adapted
• The disadvantages of the system though are
numerous losses.
• productivity is low with the erratic and often
seasonal food supplies.
• Irregular breeding of sows
• slow growth rate and high piglet mortality.
• Breeding is indiscriminate as no particular
attention is paid to selection of pigs on
desirable traits.
• They are particularly susceptible to infestation
by parasites from various sources.
  2. Semi-Intensive
• The animals are restricted to a limited area
• The farmer takes the whole responsibility of feeding
them.
• Once in awhile, the pigs are allowed into the fenced
larger yard to graze, wallow and exercise.
• Housing is mainly of very simple construction and
made from simple and inexpensive materials like
mud, bamboo and elevated thatched roof.
• The animals are fed on kitchen wastes
• Food by-products etc
• Some level of managerial skills is required.
• The herd sizes are bigger.
• Indigenous breeds are still prevalent
• Crosses between local and exotic breeds are
more commonly available.
• Many small holder pig farmers practice the
extensive system during the dry season
• The semi-intensive system during the rainy
season to prevent damage to crops. In this
regard therefore, no fenced yards are provided.
• The housing provided for night shelter during
the dry season is the same as that used during
the wet seasons.
• The semi-intensive system can be
recommended for small holders and beginning
pig farmers.
 3. Intensive Production System
  is the commercial method of pig production
 Economic considerations are the sole determinant of herd
size.
 The farmer grows or buys feed especially for his pig
enterprise.
 Housing is generally more expensive with concrete floor,
and zinc/asbestos roofing.
 Adequate shade, pen space,
 Feed and water facilities
 Requirement for skilled management
 veterinary protection against parasites
 Higher performance exotic or crosses between exotic
and indigenous breeds are used.
 Access to credit facilities is favorable.
 Cost benefit estimates are often the primary motivating
factors for farmers to invest in commercial pig
production.
 These factors also determine the level of herd size and
capital intensiveness of the enterprise.
 Intensive pig production small scale (5 sow herd or up to
100 stock/year),
 Medium scale (10 sow herd or up to 200 stock/year) or
large scale (greater than 200 stock/year) in most
developing countries
 This system of pig farming can be combined
with fish farming and vegetable production.
 Fish ponds can be fertilized with pig manure
 Pig houses can be constructed above the ponds
so that the manure can drop straight into the
fish ponds.
 Pig manure can be used as organic manure to
enrich soil for vegetable gardening.
 While residues from vegetable products are in
turn feed to pigs.
 Piggery Enterprises
• Better to start on a small scale and then expand as more experience is
gained.
• Essentially, there are four pig production enterprises.
1. Farrow-to-finish operations-the farmer keep a sow herd and produce his
own growers for a finishing operation which he also owns.
2. Farrow only - The farmer keeps a sow herd which produces wean which
he sells to growing and finishing operators.
3. Finishing operation - Farmer buys piglets either as wean or growers and
fatten them for the pork market
4. Breeding - The production of breeding stock is a very specialized
enterprise reserved only for the experienced pig breeders
• Requires heavy capital investment.
• The beginning farmer or pig producer who wants to expand must take
stock of the market needs of his environment
• the level of resources available to him/her to decide which of these
enterprises to invest in as win as the level of investment.
 CHAPTER 5
Breed Improvement of swine

5.1 .Breeding
• Improvements in productive parameters can be
achieved only by selection of animals with superior
genetic make-up as the parents for the next generation.
• Since the primary objective of pig farming is for meat
production, the farmer must learn to select those
animals that can be manipulated through breeding and
management.
• For maximum performance, a systematic cross breeding
Programme should be followed.
• The primary advantage of cross breeding is in the use of
the cross bred dam which farrows and weans more pigs.
• On the average, cross-bred pigs gain more weight and are
more efficient than pure-breeds.
• It is not as if there are an optimum number of breeds
that a farmer can use in a cross-breeding programme but
a practical recommendation is three.
1. It is advisable to select breeds that are somehow
dissimilar in their characteristics.
2. In very hot regions there is very little interest in rearing
animals that are too large as they cannot cope well with
hyperthermia.
3. In any case the profitability of a farm does not have to
be assessed in terms of animal size.
• If feed conversion ratios are good, this may be
assured with smaller animals.
• The performance of cross-breed animals is
generally not the mean of the two parents as a
result of phenomenon of heterosis or hybrid vigour.
 The offspring are usually more robust (strong and
healthy) and their performance superior than
would be predicted.
 Heterosis: is the difference between the offspring
and the men of the parents for a given
performance characteristics.
. 
 Breeding methods
• Pure-breeding
• Mating purebred individuals of the same breed.
• The progeny has the same genetic makeup.
• The major objective of pure-breeding is to identify
and transmit superior genes for use in commercial
production primarily in crossbreeding
• programs as well as to transmit and identify superior
females for maintaining valuable genetic material.
• Furthermore crossbreeding will not be worthwhile
unless superior pure bred individuals are used.
 • Out breeding
• Mating individuals of the same breed but who
are less closely related than the average of the
breed.
• There should not be a common ancestor for at
least four generation back in the pedigree of
the boar and the females with which he is
mated.
• It is a useful mating system in purebred
individuals
 • Cross breeding
• Mating two individuals from different breeds
thus introducing into the progeny a gene
combination that is different from that existing in
either parent or in the breed of either parent.
• Cross breeding can involve two or more breeds,
depending on the desired result.
• The sole purpose of cross breeding is to take
advantage of the observed improvement in
performance of the progeny above that of either
parent hybrid vigour or heterosis.
Best pig breeding purchase adapted in the village. ( Breeding
boar exchange
between villages / farmers grops.)
 Age of pigs at breeding
Boar:Selection of Breeding Boar
• It is extremely important to select a good boar since it
contributes half the quality of the herd.
• Boar to have sound feet with good, full hams, uniform curve at
the back and of good length.
• Boar to have at least 12 nicely placed rudimentary teats so as
to pass on this characteristic.
• Boar to be selected from sows, which wean 8 -10 or more
piglets per litter and are known to be good mothers.
• Boar to be selected from the herd which is having normal sex
organs, active, healthy and strong.
• Selection to be done before castration i.e. at 4 weeks. Select
biggest from the litter.
• Boar must be at least 8 months old at first service.
Sow: at least 8 months old.
• However, currently there has been a change in
attitude and mating is now at 7 months with no
problems.  
• Age is of greater concern than live-weight which
itself is variable between breeds; e.g. cross-bred
pigs may be bred at 85kg but local breeds at 60kg.
• On those farms where weaning is at 7-8 weeks (49-
56 days), sows in good condition will return to
estrus during the week following the weaning.
• Age to breed gilts 8 months
• Weight of breed gilts 100-120 kg
• Length of heat period 2-3 days
• Best time to breed in heat period Gilts – first day
and Sows- Second day
• Number of services per sow 2 services at an
interval of 12-14 hours
• Period of oestrous cycle 18-24 days (Average 21
days)
• Occurrence of heat after weaning 2-10 days
• Gestation period 114 days
 Mating
• Mating must be takes place a little before ovulation;
because the life of ova is short 2-3 hours.
• However, spermatozoa may live for 48 hours in the
uterus of the female.
• Ovulation takes place 30-40 hours from the beginning
of acceptance of the male, which represents true
heat.
• Acceptance of the male corresponds to the ‘standing’
phase which lasts for about 2 days.
• Mating should take place, either at the end of the first
or at the beginning of the second day.
• It is important to note that proximity of the male is a
factor influencing acceptance.
• If the sow smells and hears the boar in a neighboring
pen, receptivity is improved nine times out of ten.
• Following mating, the sow is returned to the pen.
• Under good conditions, boars may serve a second
sow in the same day on condition that there is a gap
of few hours between mating.
• However, mating every day is not advisable as this
lead to lower fertility fatigue. Rest days are essential.
• One boar can serve 40 sows in a piggery.
• Boars should not be kept for more than 3 or 4 years as
they become too heavy and ill-tempered
 Artificial Insemination (A.I)
• This involves collection of semen from a boar
and then introducing it into a sow or gilt at a
later stage by means of catheter.
• It allows for wider use and distribution of boars
of high genetic merit.
 5.2. Selection
• Muscling, growth rate, and leanness have been the
primary criteria for selecting breeding animals over the
past two decades.
• Less emphasis has been placed on traits actually related
to reproductive performance.
• Crossbreeding has been used to solve breeding problems
• Breeding animals must be identified for their prospective
roles long before their potential is expressed,
• but no method has been used for selecting possible
breeding animals other than visual appraisal - a process
that carries with it a large margin of error.
• Producers are using the "all-in, all-out" system, in which
a group of females is farrowed during one week or less,
• their pigs are weaned on the same day after a three- or
four-week nursing period, and all sows are moved out of
the farrowing barn.
• This system allows for more thorough cleaning of the
farrowing facility than continuous farrowing and reduces
the number of pig deaths from disease.
• Since the gestation period cannot be altered significantly,
females must be bred within less than one week of one
another if they axe to farrow within the same week at
the end of normal gestation.
• Reproductive performance can be improved
through selection and management.
• There are basically two goals:
1. Select a small number of boars for their
ability to sire sound, prolific daughters (a gilt
line).
2. To produce replacement animals for the
breeding herd;
3. To produce a rapid-growing market hog of
excellent carcass quality and feed efficiency In
recent breeding systems,
• In recent breeding systems,
• Two or three breeds are selected that complement one
another in productive traits.
• The most popular three breed cross involves Hampshire for
muscling and growth rate,
• Duroc for growth rate and acceptable litter size,
• Yorkshire for mothering ability, ease of breeding, and
superior litter size. Other breeds have also been used
successfully.
• The goal is to "increase" the traits of low heritability
through crossbreeding so that the female possesses a
maximum amount of hybrid vigor.
• Gains in litter size and improved reproductive efficiency
will require at least four or five generations.
 shortly when make selection:
• Identify gilts from large litters.
• Reduce litter size by transferring males to other sows.
• Select or develop boars to sire more prolific gilts, and
breed the highest producing sows to these boars.
• Breed medium- and low-producing sows to boars
selected for traits (growth rate and carcass quality)
more suitable for market-hog production
• Manage gilts and boars to improve breeding efficiency
and reproductive performance.
 Select the breeding stock when the pigs are sexually
mature (i.e. about five months of age).
 from the same age group for their fair comparison.
 Indicators of the pig’s performance
1. Growth Rate: Measured by determining the difference in weight at
weaning and weight at maturity divided by the number of days.
A good rule of thumb is to weigh the animals at two months and then at
five months.
The daily gain is the difference in weight divided by 90, the number of days
in three months. At five months, the live- weight of a pig should be
between 65 and 85kg.
The rate of gain should not be less than 600g/day.
2. Efficiency of Gain: how much feed was consumed to put on the weight
gain.
It is usually measured for a group of pigs.
Add the total feed consumption of the group that was fed together and
divide by the total weight gain of the entire group to get the feed
efficiency of the group.
3. Litter Size: Is important, but it is a low heritable trait. Select breeders
from amongst large, healthy and well performing litters.
4. Conformation and Sex Characteristics: Pigs selected for
Breeding must be
• physically healthy,
• have good strong legs,
• be free from any defects and
• Must not be too fat.
• Boars must have two equally sized and firmly
suspended testicles,
• Exhibit sex drive and be void of bad habits.
• It is important to note that the genetic influence of the
boar on the next generation is greater than that of the
sow since one boar will be used to mate several sows.
• Gilts must have a good underline and udder with at least
12 well spaced, fully formed teats.
• Other Selection Criteria: For the small-scale farmer,
the above four criteria are adequate but for the
large scale farmer and pig breeding or testing
stations, other criteria are commonly in use. These
include:
• farrowing rate, number of still born litter,
• Average pig birth weight, pigs weaned per litter
furrowed,
• Average weaning weight, loin muscle area.
• Carcass length, back fat depth, fat depth, percent
lean, mortality rate at weaning and in growing
finishing stage.
 Management of Breeding Boars and Gilts
• Litters selected for breeding should be separated into
boars and gilts at five months to prevent indiscriminate
(unselective) mating.
• In the breeding herd, the boar should be at least 7.5
months of age or about 120kg in weight when first
used for breeding.
• Mating behavior
• Libido -desire to mate
• Mating -boar's ability to erect the penis and properly
enter the gilt
• Boars are at their best between 15 months to four
years of age.
• Under pen mating system, a boar should
effectively service 10-12 gilts or sows.
• More females can be served if hand-mating is
used. Care should be taken to avoid
overworking the boar
 Management of gilt
• The gilt should not be bred before seven
months of age.
• The advantage of an older age is that the
number of eggs ovulated increases through the
third or fourth estrous period.
• Furthermore, signs of estrous in young gilts may
be less obvious and of shorter duration
especially under confinement.
• The number of gilts per pen should not be more
than 15.
• Moving gilts to new pens, increased exercise,
• Daily exposure to boars beginning between 160
and 180 days of age will help stimulate the onset
of estrus.
• Breeding should be delayed until the second or
third estrus to increase the probability of large
litters and prevent dystocia.
• Gilts that do not conceive after mating at two
estrous periods should be marketed.
• Likewise, gilts that have not expressed heat by 9
months of age should be culled.
• During gestation, gilts should be fed to gain about
75 lb and not become overly fat.
 • Purchasing Breeding Stock
• Important to buy from a reliable supplier who
can give authentic information on the
performance traits.
• On purchase, they should be kept apart for about
30 days to make sure that they are free from any
obvious disease and also to enable them
acclimatize to the new environment before put
to use.
 Chapter 6
Reproduction in swine
• 6.1. Male reproductive organs
The reproductive efficiency of the breeding herd depends upon
the fertility of the boar. (Why)
Male fertility is essential since the boar's DNA is the primary
mechanism through which genetic improvements can efficiently
be accomplished.
The overall factors that influence a male's fertility are complex.
An understanding of the anatomy and physiology of sperm
production in the boar can aid in selecting and managing males
to ensure optimal boar fertility.
• Boar Anatomy & Physiology
• General Boar Anatomy(reading Assignment)
 Boar Maturity
 
• Physiological maturation in boars after birth is an
ongoing process. Between 1-2 months of age, mounting
behavior is first observed in young boars. At three
months of age there is a second period of germ cell
division (future sperm producing cells) and a rapid
increase in the testes to body weight ratio.
• Sperm Production
• Once puberty occurs, spermatogenesis is a continual
process, inside the testicle, pre-sperm cells, called
spermatogonia, begins to mature near the outside wall
of the seminferous tubes.
•  Sperm Maturation & Storage 
• Sperm leave the testicle and enter the epididymis.
As sperm leave the testicle, they enter the head of
the epididymis. The sperm cells are very
concentrated and in this form are not motile
• Thermoregulation of the Testes

• The process of spermatogenesis is highly dependent

upon temperature and is especially sensitive to
elevated temperatures. Therefore the role of the
scrotum is to regulate testes temperature to be ~3.5°
F (2° C) lower than body temperature
• Factors Influencing Semen Quality
• Breeds / Lines
• Testis Size
• Boar Age
• Daily Sperm Production
• Sperm Storage
• Sperm that are stored in the tail of the epididymis are fertile for
several weeks. Older or excess sperm in the tail of the
epididymis are lost through minor muscle contractions, which
allow sperm to be eliminated with urine.
• Sperm Abnormalities
 6.2. Female reproductive organ

• Reproductive success is measured primarily by pigs produced per sow per

year and is dependent upon both farrowing rate and litter size. In order to
achieve optimal reproductive rates, both the anatomical and physiological
workings of the reproductive system must function properly.
• The Female Reproductive Tract
• General Parts and Support
• The female reproductive tract is composed of paired right and left
ovaries, oviducts, and uterine horns. It contains only a single cervix,
vagina and vulva (external genitalia). Collectively, these structures are
supported by the broad ligament and hang loosely suspended below the
rectum in the both pelvic canal and lower abdomen.
• The Ovary
• Follicle Development
 Ovulation

• The occurrence of peak levels of estrogen in

the blood, which originate from the large
follicles on the ovary, is followed closely by a
flow of LH into the blood at the time of estrus.
• The Oviduct
• The oviduct is a short convoluted tube that
connects the ovary to the uterus.
 Insemination and Fertilization

• Sperm are typically deposited into the

reproductive tract near the junction of the
cervix and uterus. Although much of the
inseminate enters the uterus, there is a
significant back-flow loss of semen volume
which occurs over the next several hours after
insemination.
 The Uterus:
• The uterus is the largest single portion of the
female reproductive tract and is capable of
considerable change in size from the non-
pregnant to the pregnant state. The uterus is
composed of paired uterine horns with the
cervix at one end and the oviducts at the other.
The uterus has four layers, an inner most layer
which is glandular, two additional inner layers
which are muscular, and the fourth layer, which
forms the outer surface.
 The Cervix:
• The cervix is approximately one inch in diameter and
about 6-8 inches in length, and connects the vagina
and the uterus. It is made of tough connective tissue
and contains limited amounts of glandular and
muscular tissue. The cervix is also a flexible structure
and can open and close under the influence of
hormones. The cervix is also the primary source of
mucus. Under estrogen stimulation, such as that
which occurs at estrus, the mucus becomes watery
and can sometimes be seen seeping from the vulva.
• The Vagina: The vagina is approximately 12-18
inches long and connects the cervix to the
external genitalia of the pig.
• There is limited muscular and glandular tissue in
the vagina and it serves primarily as a
copulatory organ for the boar and as a
passageway from the uterus to the outside.
• The Vulva: The external genitalia of the female
pig is composed of some connective and fatty
tissues.