Pedagogy Course PP

A Presentation on the Module
Pedagogy (CTPD 601)
By Fetene R. Melka (PhD)
Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
CoEBS, AAU
By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 1
Unit I: Learning and Teaching
in Higher Education
Institutions

How do you understand HEIs?
HEI
s

Why do HEIs matter?
Comment on the following advantages of HEIs in
relation to the Ethiopian context.
• Well-trained work force in the state
• Technologically competitive
• Enhance research and technology
• Creating jobs
• Keeping the state’s economy stronger
• Attracting business and employers
• Good quality of life
• Bringing money into the state
• Keeping young people in the state
• Creating a sense of state pride
• Attracting people to the stateR Melka (PhD)
By Fetene 4
Higher Education Benefits model
PUBLIC PRIVATE
 Increased Tax Revenues  Higher Salaries and Benefits

 Greater Productivity  Employment
 Increased Consumption  Higher Saving Levels
ECONOMIC  Increased Workforce Flexibility  Improved Working Conditions
 Decreased Reliance on Government  Personal / Professional Mobility
for Financial Support
 Reduced Crime Rates  Improved Health / Life Expectancy

 Increased Charitable Giving /  Improved Quality of Life for Offspring
Community Service  Better Consumer Decision Making
SOCIAL
 Increased Quality of Civic Life  Increased Personal Status
 Social Cohesion/unity / Appreciation of  More hobbies / Leisure activities
Diversity
 Improved Ability to Adapt to and Use
Technology

HEIs Cont’d
HEIs are institutions that provide post secondary
education and produce human resource,
conduct research, and involve in community
services. They are aimed at educating citizen to
become:
. well informed /knowledgeable/ well-versed
and deeply motivated citizens
. who can think critically
. analyze problems of society
. Identifying problems and looking for their
solutions and apply them to solve
. accept socialByresponsibilities.
Fetene R Melka (PhD) 6
HE…
• HE deals with the nature of intellectual
development (knowledge creation and
application)
• It is allied to creating knowledge-based

society and economy

Missions and goals of HEIs in Ethiopia
According to the HE Proclamation No. 650/2009, the
objectives of HEIs in Ethiopia are:
1. To make the country internationally competitive
through preparing knowledgeable, skilled, and
attitudinally mature graduates.
2. To promote and enhance research focusing on

knowledge and technology transfer consistent with
the country’s priority needs;

Missions and goals … con’d
3. To ensure and safeguard that education and

research promote freedom of expression
(including academic freedom)
4. To design and provide community and

consultancy services that shall cater to the
developmental needs of the country;
5. To ensure institutional autonomy with

accountability;

Missions and goals … cont’d
6. To ensure the participation of key stakeholders in
the governance of the institutions;
7. To promote and uphold/support justice, fairness,

and rule of law in the institutional life;
8. To promote democratic culture and uphold

multicultural (diversified) community life;
9. To ensure fairness in the distribution of public

institutions and expand access on the basis of
need and equity. By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 10
Guiding Values of HEIs in Ethiopia
• Expression of truth, Pursuit of truth and freedom
• Institutional reputability /honesty/trustworthy =
Highly regarded
• Competitiveness in scholarship/research
• Cooperation with other institutions and industry;
• Institutional autonomy with accountability;
• Participatory governance
• Rule of law;
• Justice/impartiality and fairness;
• A culture of fighting corruption, etc
Guiding Values con’d…
• Quality and speedy service delivery;

• Economical in use of resources and
effective maintenance of assets;
• Recognition of merit/value;
• Democracy and multiculturalism/cultural
pluralism in managing the institution,
curriculum development and
implementation.

The personnel, students and curriculum in HEIs
They should respond to the following:
• Using new and appropriate methods (active learning and student-centered
methodology, CA, Using instructional technology, modularization)
• Competencies and abilities for communicating effectively, creative and

critical analysis, independent thinking and team work in multicultural
contexts;
• The curricula should take into account the cross- cutting issues including
gender dimensions, HIV/AIDS and recent pandemics Environmental issues,
social, culture, technological and economic context of the country
(Relevance);
• The teaching of human rights standards and education on the needs of

communities / university-industry linkage, community engagement
• Determination of academic curriculum by the academic personnel

(academic freedom)
A. Who are HEI Learners
. They are the major actors/partners and responsible

stakeholders in the renewal of HEIs.
. Considering them is as one of the ways in responding to the

relevance and quality of education
. Decision makers and service providers need to place the

learners and their needs at the center of their concern.
. We need to consider their demographic (age, sex, gender),

psychological characteristics (motivation, needs, interest and
self-concept), sociological characteristics (friendship and
social linkage), cultural background, religious affiliation,
quality of preparation at secondary school level, marital
status and family background in planning and implementing
course. By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 14
Who are learners …
. Behaviors that characterize secondary school
level period of transition which is characterized
by more freedom from parents, teachers and
school regulations is over here.
. Their physical, psychomotor, social, affective,
emotional, intellectual/cognitive and their
aspiration change.
. Understanding them at entry level and provision

of guidance and counseling service is priceless
and invaluable here.
. At this stage we need to take the learners
through the changing process in a smooth,
gradual and painless way.
15
By Fetene R Melka (PhD)
Unit II
Expected Qualities of instructors/teachers
Expectations: an exemplars in teaching, research and
community service (outreach programs, extension service,
service learning, CBE, consultancy,----). These are duties
of HE teachers
• Good subject matter knowledge
• Master of his/her field of knowledge and its methods of
inquiry
• An understanding of how students learn
• A concern of students developments
• A commitment to scholarship
• Continuing reflection on professional practice
• A commitment and dedication to work with and learn from
colleagues
• Intellectual curiosity/inquisitiveness
• Respect for truth
• Intellectual honesty/openness/integrity
• Fundamental understanding of the learning process
Expected qualities … cont’d
• Respects truth
• Remains being a student all throughout his/her
life
• Applying fairness and impartiality
• Helpful and cooperative (in understanding
students’ problems,…)
• Makes use of different methods of teaching and
learning

Skills and Qualities of Effective Instructor (other
supportive ideas)
1. Ability of working with students (related to teaching and learning
functions):
. Have prior experience working with youth in alternative education settings.
. Maintain students’ confidentiality as appropriate.
• Show respect for students and establish rapport with them.
• Appreciate students’ individuality that every body has a unique personality.
• Provide support to them= Remedial classes, tutorial classes, counseling and
guidance, advising, etc.
• Accept the students where they are
• Have high expectations of students
• Elevates or advance students who are doing well
• Be flexible.
• Demonstrate consistency in the classroom, in treating and managing the
students and time
• Help students set goals and support them in achieving them.
• Be available to students outside of class (i.e. meet with individual students if
needed in offices).

Expected qualities of HE teachers cont’d
2. Research profile of HE teachers
• The ‘publish or perish’ or ‘publish or be damned rests largely on the

research activities.
• Research is important for HE teachers at least for three purposes:

1. It enhances the quality of instruction
2. Ensures teacher’s ability of advising students (making

one self up-to-date to the theories, methods of
research).
3. For promotion: No research no promotion, “publish

or perish”

Characteristics of a good researcher
• Ability to identify problems
• Ability to design an efficient method of solving the problem
• Resourcefulness / creativity in implementing research plan
• Objectivity /impartiality/neutrality in reporting the research
results
• Honesty
• Perseverance /determination/ firmness
• Willingness to collaborate with others (cooperative,
collaborative research for research these days is
becoming more interdisciplinary, thematic,
multidisciplinary)
• Ability to supervise others
• Skills in writing winning grant proposal
• Skills in reporting for publication
3. Community service
• Committee work and membership of the task force
• Delivery of public lectures
• Offering of services in one’s specialized area
• Office holder of national societies e.g. president
/chairman of some professional organizations/
associations.
HW for reading.
Q1. State the chaxs needed for successful participation in
community services.
Q2. prepare checklist to evaluate the community service of
yourself and your higher learning institution
Q3. How can this be improved?
Curriculum Development in
HEIs
Principles for Development of a

Course Profile

Assumptions
• Universities are autonomous and operate in a

competitive environment.
• Training shall be relevant for society:
Cultural, social and economic national development
goals and priorities
• Training should respond to the needs in the job
market.
• Training should be up-to-dated and revised through
different ways including tracer study.
• Training should be in line with the university’s profile.
Main Steps in Curriculum Development in HEIs
– Needs Assessment (Industry, government and NGO, pressure
groups, academics, students, alumni, etc)
– Formulation of Aims, Goals and Objectives
– Selection of Learning Opportunities

– Contents
– Learning Experiences
– Organization of Learning Opportunities
– Methodological Strategies/ pedagogical approaches
– Assessment Methods
– Resources (references and materials of teaching and learning)

– Validation of the Curriculum
– Implementation
Needs Assessment Cont’d
• What is needs assessment?
• What are sources of information to assess
the needs?
• How can one collects information for
needs assessment from different sources?

Example of Questions during needs assessment with
regards to the students as sources of information
Who are the students?

Their educational, experiential, etc.
backgrounds
What are their motives & aspirations?
Qualification? Jobs?
Improvement/development?
What are their learning and/or support
needs?
Understanding their diverse support needs.
Needs Assessment Cont’d…
What are their strengths and weaknesses?
Strengths may vary, but identifying the most common
and needed ones to the course is an asset.
What sort of learning style?
Students vary in their preference of learning style.
For example:
. Visual, auditory or kinesthetic
. Dependent, independent, competent,
collaborative, avoidant, etc

Needs Assessment Cont’d
…
What language style will be most suitable?
Simple sentence vs. complex sentence, standard
Language vs. dialect of the locality, formal language
vs. informal Language.
What level of difficulty can students cope with

or understand?
Learners vary in terms of learning capability and or
maturity.
Is the student cohort a homogeneous group or

mixed?
The most frequent and By
expected is (PhD)
Fetene R Melka mixed group. 28
2. Formulation of Aims, Goals
and Objectives

Taxonomy of Educational
Goals and Objectives
• Cognitive Domain
• Affective Domain
• Psychomotor Domain

Cognitive domain
• Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation

Affective domain
• Attention (receiving)
• Responding
• Valuing
• Organisation
• Characterisation by value

Psychomotor domain
• Imitation
• Manipulation
• Precision
• Articulation
• Naturalisation

Formulation of Educational
Objectives
Criteria / Principles in Writing Objectives :
• Compatibility/Consistency (related to the goal of the
program)
• Appropriateness (to the learners’ physical, social,
intellectual, emotional, social development; socio-political
and economic development of the nation)
• Briefness and Clarity (SMART)
• Variety, Comprehensiveness (consist of different domains)
and logically grouped
• Worth (useful and need based)
• Attainability (objectives should not be
• over ambitious that make them difficult to achieve)
Activity 2
• Look at the courses of your department. Select one of
them and try to identify the general and specific
objectives of the selected course.
• Give possible justifications for worth of the objectives.
• What are the components of instructional objectives?
Illustrate with the help of examples.
• Develop criteria to evaluate the educational objectives.
• Discuss the importance of goals and objectives in the
light of the curriculum development process.
• How do you decide whether a given objective is
valuable or not?

3. Selection of Learning Opportunities (contents and
learning experiences)
What are contents and learning opportunities/ experiences?

Use the following as criteria while selecting them?
• Validity, soundness, legitimacy, or strength
• Worth/Significance
• Appropriateness, suitability or correctness
• Comprehensiveness (in relation to the three domains of educational
objectives)
• Balance – between breadth and depth
• Compatibility with culture
• Variety
• Efficiency/ feasible/ affordability
• Motivational value (satisfaction)
• Clarity

4. Organizing criteria for learning opportunities
• Maintaining continuity= Planned repetition with

increased level of difficulty.
• Establishing sequence= putting and arranging
them in both logical and psychological orders
• Maintaining integration= keeping unity among
contents and different courses (see the
preparation of the modularize curriculum)
• Establishing scope = Deciding the coverage

Reasons for undertaking curri.
Dev’t in HE (additional)
• To improve what is taught
• Filling the gap that currently exist in HE
programs
• Responding to the needs of society
• Responding to research evidences and
results

Practices of Curr. Dev’t in HE
• The construction and revision of the
existing syllabus for new or existing course
• The inclusion of new dev’ts in the field of

study resulting from research and public
declaration in to existing programs ( Civics
and Ethical education, Entrepreneurship,
ICT, etc).
Some practical hints on course
development and implementation
• Provide basic information
• Describe the prerequisite to the course/module
• Give an over view of the module/course’s
purpose /rationale
• State the general learning goals/objectives
• Clarify the conceptual structure
(arrangement/organization) used to organize the
course
• Describe the activities in the course
• Specify the textbooks and readings by authors
and editions By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 40
Some practical hints …
• Identify additional materials or equipment
needed by the course
• List assignments, term papers, and exams
• State how students will be evaluated and how
grades will be assigned
• Discuss course policies
• Inform students with special needs to contact
you during office hours, address
• Provide a course calendar or schedule
• Estimate students’ workload (% of individual and
group work loads)By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 41
Working in HEIs
Generally working in HEIs encompasses:
1. Designing (courses/modules and lessons)
2. Teaching (directing, facilitating learning)
3. Supervising (project, thesis, dissertation)
4. Innovating(teaching with new technology,
new ideas on doing things).
5. Assessing and evaluating (students,
teaching and course).
6. Conducting research
7. Providing community services

1.2 Learning and Related Issues
Learning from perspectives of psychology
• Learning as a process of acquiring knowledge through
the mental process.
• It is developing the mental caliber of the individuals
• Learning is a relatively permanent change/ modification

of the b/r (acquisition of knowledge, the development of
skills and formation of value system) of the learner as a
result of practice.
• It is the result of the process of helping others to change
in behaviour.

Stages of Learning
• The motivation stage:
. Receiving a stimulus to learn
. Selecting information from the environment by the sensory
receptors.
• The acquisition stage:

. Information processing, retrieving/recovering and exploiting (from
the short-term memory to the long-term memory).
• The performance stage:

. Learners use, apply (information) what they have acquired to
solve problems.

Learning and related Issues …
1. Strategies and Styles of Learning

• The concept of “learning styles” refers to
individual typical ways of processing
information and seeking meaning”
(Parkay, 2006: 169).
kinesthetics /audiovisuals, visuals and
audio

Classroom Activity
Read each statement carefully. To the right of each
statement, write the number that best describes how
each statement applies to you as follow:
Almost never= 1;
rarely=2;
sometimes=3;
often=4 or
almost always=5.
Sum up the value you assigned to each items separately,
and compare the results of the three learning styles. The
highest score may represent your learning style and
preference. By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 46
N Statement (visual learners) S
1 I take lots of note
2 When talking to some one else I find it hard if they do not maintain good eye
contact
3 I make lists and notes because I remember things better if I write them down
4 When reading a novel pay a lot of attention to passages picturing the
clothing, scenery, setting, etc.
5 I need to write down directions to a new places so that I remember them
6 I need to see the person I’m talking to in order to keep my attention focused
7 When meeting a person for the first time I notice the style of dress, visual
characteristics, and neatness first.
8 When I’m at a wedding , I like to stand back and observe others.
9 When recalling information I can see it in my mind and remember where I
saw it
10 If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I would prefer to write it out
11 With free time I’m most likely to read or watch television
12 If the head has a message for me, I R
By Fetene prefer
Melka it(PhD)
if he sends a note 47
N Statement (audio learners) S
1 When I read, I read out loud or move my lips to hear the words in my head
2 When talking to someone else I find it hard with those who do note talk back
to me
3 I do not take a lot of notes but I still remember what was said
4 When reading a novel I pay attention to passages involving conversations,
talking, speaking, dialogue, etc
5 I like to talk to my self when solving a problem or writing

6 I can understand what a speaker says , even if I’m not focused on the
speaker.
7 I remember things more easily by repeating them again and again
8 When I’m at a wedding , I like to talk about a subject that is important to me
9 I’w rather receive information from the radio than a newspaper
10 If I’d to explain a new procedure or technique, I’w prefer talking about it.
11 With free time I’m most likely to listen to music

12 If the head has a message for me I’m most comfortable with the telephone
Learning styles cont’d
Statement (audio-visuals/kinesthetic) s
1 I’m not good at reading or listening to instruction, I’w rather just start
working on the task or project at hand
2 When talking to someone else I have the hardest time handling those
who do not show any kind of emotional support
3 I take note and doodle but I rarely go back a look at them
4 When reading a novel I pay a lot of attention to passages about
feelings, actions and drama
5 When I’m reading , I move my lips
6 I use my hands a lot when I’m trying to remember the right thing to say
7 My desk or work place appears is organized
8 When I’m at wedding, I love to dance and sing
9 I like to move around, I feel trapped when seated at a meeting or a
desk
10 If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I’d prefer actually
demonstrating it
By Fetene
11 With free time I’m most likely R Melka (PhD)
to exercise 49
2. Learning Tasks
• Learning tasks are open questions put to a small group
who have all resources they need to respond.
There are a number of learning tasks including:
1. Inductive task= to understand the present learners’
conception /idea of a topic
2. Input task= Learners are expected to engage in new
concepts or skills, to add their own experiences.
3.Implementation task= It invites learners to implement/apply
new concept, skills, knowledge learnt (immediacy is high)
4. Integration task= application of the learned skills,
knowledge--- to their life and work
5. Authentic learning tasks=Instruction here is organized
around the whole task which are challenging.
Useful guides to design authentic learning tasks
.
1. Authentic tasks have real-world relevance
2.Authentic tasks are ill-defined, requiring students to define the tasks and
sub-tasks needed to complete the activity= open to multiple interpretations
3. Authentic tasks comprise complex tasks to be investigated by students
over a sustained period of time. = they require hours beyond classroom
period
4. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity for students to examine the task
from different perspectives, using a variety of resources.
5. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity to collaborate

Useful guide cont’d
6. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity to reflect /reveal
7. Authentic tasks can be integrated and applied across different
subject areas and lead beyond domain-specific outcomes
8. Authentic tasks need to be integrated with assessment
9. Authentic tasks allow competing /challenging solutions and diversity
of outcome

Common Learning Theories
A. Behavioral learning theory
. emphasizes observable changes in behavior that
result from stimulus-response (S-R) sequence that
begins and ends out side the individual leaner.
. Learning is the product of designing /planning.
. Learning is regarded as a conditioning /training
process by which a person acquires a new
response.
. Motivation and rewards as important components
of learning (Carrot and stick principles).
. By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 53

Common learning theories …
• Learning as a straightforward/simple process of response

to stimuli. Reward/reinforcement strengthens response
(B.F. Skinner).
• Pavlov demonstrated that the application of neutral stimuli
could be used to elicit/bring out a response from animals.
• They maintain on the observable change in behavior as
the manifestation of learning.
• The theory emphasizes changes in behavior due to the
influence and control of external environment, rather than
the internal thoughts process of the subject.

Common learning theories …
• Common assumptions of the theory are threefolds:

1. Emphasis on observable behavior rather than internal
thought processes creates learning.
2. It is the environment that creates learning and it
determines what is learned, not the individual learner.
3. It is the ability to understand the overall process, and the
ability to repeat or reinforce the process that is common
trend.
Contiguity (timing of event) and reinforcement are

important. It is common in animal and human training.

Common learning theories cont’d
B. Social Learning Theories

. Learning process is primarily social, and
learning occurs through socialization,
observing others, experience sharing
. Socialization occurs in a variety of settings
and it continues throughout life, Albert
Bandura’s (1997).

C. Cognitive learning theory
. It focuses on the mental processes people use
as they acquire new knowledge and skills.
. Unlike behavioral theories, which focus on
observable behavior, cognitive theories focus on
the unobservable processing, storage, and
retrieval of information from the brain.

• D. Gestalt-field view of learning
. Refers to how learners organize information into
patterns and wholes.
.Gestalt is a German term meaning “Configuration”
or “pattern”, and Gestalt theorists maintain that
“wholeness” is primary; one should start with the
total aspects of a learning situation and then
proceed to more to particulars in light of the whole.
. Thus, obtaining an “overview” and perception is
often an important step to learning.

Theories of learning cont’d
E. Constructivist Learning Theories
• Constructivist views of learning focus on how
learners make sense of new information, how they
construct meaning based on what they already know.
• According to constructivism, “students develop new
knowledge through a process of active
constructivism. They do not passively receive or
copy input from teachers or textbooks. Instead, they
actively mediate it by trying to make sense of it and
relate it to what they already know (or think they
know) about the topic (Good and Brophy, 2003).
Common learning theory cont’d
• It is derived from the epistemological position which assumes that “
all knowledge (all meaningful reality) is contingent upon human
practices, being constructed in and out of interaction between human
beings and their world and developed and transmitted within
essentially socially context.
• Knowledge attained is subject to change when shared or exposed to
new perspectives during interaction
• Knowledge is interpreted based on the meaning people give to it.
• Learning through constructing knowledge by oneself
• Independent learning and higher education is common to this theory.
• It is a synthesis of multiple theories diffused into one form. It is
particularly the assimilation of both behaviorists and cognitive
ideals. Therefore, to the constructivists, leaning is a process of
constructing meaning. It is how people make sense of their
experience (using one’s own cognitive abilities and insights to
understand one’s own environment). That is self directed learning
style, where the individual has the ability to take in all the
information and the environment
By Fetene R of a problem
Melka (PhD) and learn. 60
• Individual constructivist: It is learner

centered. Learning is intrinsically personal
process. Meaning is made by the
individuals and is depend upon his
previous and current knowledge.
• Social constructivist view: Learning is
created by social interaction and discourse
and meaning is made dialogically.
• See modern learning theories= learning is
tentative, socially constructed rather than
“out there”. By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 61
3. Variables affecting Learning in HEIs
• Home background: Instructional language proficiency, parental styles and
no. of family in which they were grown, residential area, work experience.
• Impacts of prior experiences : their earlier socialization has also contributed

to their behaviour. Therefore, they are not in a position of the Tabula Rasa
or empty vessel to be filled. They can solve problems, create knowledge,
can carry out group work, independent activities, think critically. But their
secondary education might have endangered this.
• Selection/ admission criteria: When students below the expectation are

allowed to admit. Such students need remedial or tutorial classes to help
them makeup the subjects/course in which they score less.
• Psychological factors: are normally resident within the learners. They

include intelligence, motivational level, self-concept or emotional traits,
attitude, cognitive dev’t, expectations, values,
• Political or philosophical/ religious orientations.
• Sociological factors include family background, peer group influence, school

setting and societal expectations, friendship patterns and linkages, social
development.
• The physical environment (setting): infrastructure,
By Fetene R Melka (PhD) resources, --- 62
Practice: Summarize orientations to learning and associated ones in relation to different theories of learning
Learning Behaviorist Cognitive Humanist Social leaning Constructivist

theorists/Aspe
cts
View of
learning
process
Locus of
learning
Purpose of
education
Teacher’s role
Manifestation in
adult learning

Teaching as a Profession and Related
issues
Q. What is a profession?
• Profession is a form of employment or occupation, which
is respected in society as honorable, and is only possible
for an educated person and after getting training in some
special branch of knowledge (An Oxford Dictionary).
• A profession is an occupation that provides a special
service to the community based on accumulated
knowledge, skills and wisdom.
• It also controls the entry qualifications and work standards
of the members.
• Thus, one can understand it clearly a profession is an
employment that demands an individual to pass through
training.
Characteristics of a profession
1. Involves an intellectual activity/ body of subject matter
knowledge/ and system of skills;
2. It is practicable/practical;
3. requires an extended period of preparation for entry;
4. It has literature and unique languages of its members;
5. It is organized
6. performs specific functions for personal and social
purposes;

Teaching as a profession cont’d
Teaching as a profession demands:
1. Commitment to the ideal service of human kind rather than to personal gains;
2. Undergoing a relatively long-period of training to acquire the knowledge and
skills;
3. Meeting the admission qualifications (criteria) and keeping up-to date
through in-service programs;
4. A high level of intellectual energy;
5. Forming organization
6. Trying to get opportunities for advancement, specialization and
independence;
7. Ensuring permanent membership in the profession and taking teaching as
one’s life-long career.
• Teachers who decide to be permanent members of the profession can
contribute better than those who are always ready to leave the profession.
• Teachers have commitments to their students, the home and the
community, and the profession
Teachers’ Professional code of ethics
• The teachers’ professional codes of ethics are related to
their accountability/responsibility/commitment to their
students, the profession, their employers, the
home/parents and the community.
• Every employee is expected to accomplish tasks the

employer wants him/her perform in the organization
faithfully and honestly with the required quality.


Unit III:
Principles, Methods and

Techniques of Teaching in HEIs

Definitions and Characteristics of Principles of Teaching
• Principles of teaching are generalized statements about

teaching activities, which govern the roles of the teachers
and students both inside and outside the classrooms.
• They help teachers perform their activities in specific
directions and acceptable manners.
• They are used as regulators of what a teacher does.

• They help teachers get sufficient information on issues
related to motivation, readiness, and mechanisms of self –
learning, ways and means of making students active
participants, creating an environment to make instruction
clear, understandable, applicable and then durable.

Characteristics of principles of teaching
• Universal: common to different fields of study, levels of
education and training, and students’ nature.
• Essential : they are indispensable, crucial, vital, and necessary .
• Compulsory- they make teachers effective in achieving the

instructional objectives and efficient in the use of time, energy,
materials, space, etc in their teaching activities.
• Socially determined – the principles are results of long years of

observation of life activities and the observation of the principles
of teaching in all instructional activities help teachers satisfy the
demands of the society and meet the needs of the learners at all
levels.

The Main Principles of Teaching
and their uses in Teaching
• The principle of planning lessons in line with the curriculum;
• The principle of linking / connecting campus learning activities

of life;
• The principle of verbalization/ Voicing/ articulating in

instruction;
The principle advocates making students verbalize of what they
are learning in their own words.
• The principle of making instruction clear by using different

instructional media that appeal to the different senses;
• The principle of recognizing individual differences in teaching:

Principles cont’d
• The principle of uniting instruction with
scientific findings and procedures.
• The principle of integrating (coordinating)
different subject areas;
• The principle of the leading/faciliating role of
a teacher and independent activities of the
learner;
• The principle of specifically defining the
objectives of the lesson;
• The principle of motivating students to their
learning;
• The principle of using the experiences of the
students, use them as
By Fetene a resource
R Melka (PhD) for learning.72
Basic rules in presenting a lesson
(The logical and psychological principles of
teaching)
• presenting lessons from the known and proceeding to the
unknown.
• Starting lessons from the simple and preceding to the complex
• Presenting lessons from the easy and proceeding to the difficult
• Starting from the concrete and proceeding to the abstract;

• Starting from the whole and proceeding to the parts (specific) and
the vice – versa
It is found out that perception is better when it is on whole
objects than on specific parts (remember the gestalt psychology
theory of learning)
• Starting from the immediate and proceeding to the remote

.
Classification of methods of
teaching
A. Traditional Vs Modern Methods of teaching
• Characteristics of the traditional method:
The teacher:
• conducts recitation (learning by heart or memorization by
mechanical repetition) of what is to be learned;
• is assumed to know – all and source of knowledge;
• motivates learning through warning of failure and
punishment;
• gives lessons / tasks without involving students;
• evaluates the performances of students by hearing the
recitation / reproduction of what was learned.

Classification of methods cont’d
Modern method of teaching
• Attempts to involve the students actively and develop skills and
values in addition to the acquisition of knowledge.
• The students’ participation in the teaching – learning process,
especially in planning, organizing and performing the different tasks
under the guidance of their instructor(s) is very high.
• Much attention is given to directing students’ efforts towards
learning by doing rather than through memorization or recitation of
the learned materials.
• Encouragement and guidance in the activities are given instead of
warning of failure and punishment.
• The modern methods include problem – solving, group discussion,
project work, student’s independent activities /study, individualized
instruction, etc.
• They have activities that are based on the data collected
applications of what required, making analysis, reasoning and
forming generalization are learned in particular and new situations
are common activities.
• The methods enhance democratic teacher student relationships 75
By Fetene R Melka (PhD)
Methods cont’d
Modern method of teaching also includes

Student’s independent work methods (self-
planning, self-responsibility & self–action,
students learn according to their pace).
The techniques here may include the

assignment, project and problem solving
methods.
. Discuss on the role of an instructor in students’
independent study and student centered
method. By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 76
The Major Methods of Teaching: Mechanism,
Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages
The Lecture Method:
• It is the oldest teaching method, which is
identified as a method of explanation or
clarification of contents to students verbally
(verbal explanation). It is a method where the
teacher is more active and students are made
passive.
• It is usually a one-way communication where a
teacher narrates or presents on social or natural
events, processes, procedures, etc by citing
authorities in the field of the subject but not
students.
Lecture method cont’d
• Discuss the types(modified/formal and
unmodfied/informal), application,
advantages and disadvantages of lecture
method.

Demonstration Method
• Discuss on the definition
• Its nature, classification (formal and
informal),
• Components in (explanation,
demonstration, students’ performance,
instructor’s supervision, and evaluation),
• Advantages and disadvantages of the
demonstration method.
The group discussion method
• Students’ role in Group discussion:
. students usually discuss on a topic, make a review,
clarify points, make corrections, apply their earlier
knowledge and skills, reinforce their learning.
• The method is particularly suitable to contents that
involve matters of opinion.
• It can be applied when the objective of the lesson is to
bring about changes in the attitudes of the learners.
• One can use it whenever there is the need for obtaining
feedback about the learners’ level of understanding and
ability to apply the already acquired knowledge.
• Develop communication skills and solve problems

When should a teacher use the
group discussion method?
• When the teacher expects the ideas of students to
analyze a problem and decide on a plan of action;
• When the teacher feels that there is the need to
expand the total amount of information obtained;
• When the teacher wants to make his/her students to
get an understanding of a program, a principle or a
policy; and
• When the teacher wants to incorporate the discussion
method as an essential part of most other methods.

Forms of Group Discussions
The different learning groups can be
classified as:
• Buzz group
• Panel discussion group
• Seminar group and
• Brainstorming group

The buzz – group Discussion
It is a discussion situation whereby the class students are divided into
small groups of three to six students for a brief discussion. Then,
the whole class later reforms for reporting the results.
A Buzz group discussion is necessary when:

• it is difficult to get a class start to discuss in a larger group;
• teachers want some suggestion from the entire class
• when the teachers want to make class action to be based on the

recommendations from all.
• students seem to be getting tired or bored.
• students hesitate to make critical

By Fetene comments
R Melka (PhD) in a large group; 83
Procedures on Conducting Buzz
– group Discuss
• To make effective use of a buzz group discussion, the teacher must do the following
1.Dividing the whole class into smaller groups of three to six students;
2. Arranging their seats in a circle, so that they face each other;
3. Asking them elect a chair person and a secretary;
4.Telling the students the question for discussion; one must be sure that the students
have understood it. If it is possible to write it on the chalkboard. Make the task
simple and just one question at a time.
5. Telling the students the amount of time they will have for discussion, possibly 5 to 10
minutes.
6. Observing the groups and giving help to anyone who doesn’t seem to understand the
procedure;
7. A few minutes before the time is up, telling them that there are “x” minutes for the
discussion. If there is an extension of time, announce to all groups. But don’t let it be
too long, for a buzz group session is always a brief discussion;
8. Calling the group back together again and asking the secretary from the first group to
report. Summarize the main points on the chalkboard. Call on the other secretaries
requesting them to mention only new points which were not brought out by the first,
the second, etc. It may become a time consuming and boring if you allow all the
groups present all their findings.

The Panel Group Discussion
• Panel group discussion is a discussion between a group of three to six
people who have a special knowledge and interest in the topic to be
discussed.
• A panel discussion group has a chairperson, panel members, and
audiences.
• More often the teacher who has invited the panel members act as a
chairperson.
• It must be clear that the audience have no opportunity to express their
views. They participate as listeners.
• The audience’s questions will be addressed to the panel members
through the chairperson before they come to the panel discussion. The
students may raise additional questions.
• Panel discussion shouldn’t last more than an hour. The topic for
discussion may involve different people from different disciplines.
• The panel members could be an educator, a social worker, an
economists, environmentalist, health professionals etc.

In panel discussion the panel chairperson
has the following responsibilities.
• The chairperson (teacher) contacts members of the

panel before the meeting. He/she briefs them about the
purpose of the panel discussion, the background of the
learners, and some important points, which need to be
covered about the topic during discussion.
• The chairperson gives an introduction, which should
include the topic and, the purpose of the discussion, the
names and qualifications of the panel members and the
time limits of the discussion.
• The chairperson presents questions prepared with the
help of the students to the panel on the topic.
• The chairperson provides opportunities for all panel
members to express their views and he/she summarizes
the points made by the speakers.
Seminar Group Discussion
• A discussion after a student or group of students is

made to prepare original paper(s) on different topic(s)
and is made to present it/them. It is a method where
the discussion will be conducted after the presentation.
• The method is common in teaching at higher learning
institutions where the students are more matured than
in the lower grades.
• The advantage is the involvement of students in the
discussion. They learn how to listen to what others
talk and express their own ideas when they are given
the opportunity.

The Brainstorming Session / Group Discussion
• A discussion session by the whole group of a class to forward solution to a problem

creatively. It is a discussion group/technique whereby a group seeks as many answers
to a problem posed as possible by collecting all the ideas contributed spontaneously by
its members.The purpose of the discussion is simply to elicit a number of ideas about
and responses to a problem. In the brainstorming session, there are four basic rules to
be observed. The basic rules are that:
• criticism is forbidden and adverse judgments of ideas must be with held until late;.
Thus, no one is allowed to make a negative remark.
• free – wheeling is accepted, i.e. the wilder/natural/unusual the ideas the better. Thus,
unusual ideas are encouraged;
• quantity is wanted. Because the greater the number of ideas the greater the likelihood
of devising solutions to problems;
• In addition to contributing ideas of their own, participants should suggest how the ideas
of others can be improved or how two or more ideas can be synthesized.
• Later a judging committee screens these ideas.

Discuss on the advantage and the
disadvantages of dicussion method
The group discussion method as a two-way communication has the following
advantages.
• In discussions different views and opinions are forwarded. This enables
students to comprehend an issue from different angles;
• It exposes students to valuable experiences which develop their skills of
listening and speaking (communication skills)
• It gives the students an opportunity to analyze and synthesize facts at a
higher intellectual development.
• It provides the possibility of constant feedback between the teacher and the
students. When the response is erroneous or inappropriate, immediate
modification can be introduced and justified
• It helps students to learn and function efficiently in a group setting.
• As it is fewer teachers – centered, it allows students a chance to develop
their ideas.
• In general, group discussion enhances personal growth and competence.
Students develop their communication skills, professional attitude and
intellectual abilities.

Limitations of Discussion
Method
• The shortcomings of the discussion method are related
to preparation and presentation group discussions have
to be planned properly before the discussions. If group
discussion is not well planned and directed, it consumes
time unnecessarily. Only few students may dominate
the situation.
• Thus, the group discussion method becomes productive

if the teachers plan and conduct it properly

Role –playing Method
• Role playing method is unrehearsed/spontaneous/unprepared
dramatization in which the players attempt to take situation clear to
themselves and to the audience by playing the role of participants in
the situation. It is presented in front of the observers.
• The instructor and the students in the class serve as observer and
critics.
• It is experiential leaning
• It involves observation, discussion and analysis
• It is learning through entertainment
• It involves the skills of dealing with other people and helps in
understanding students’ feelings and reactions.
• Serves as a means for changing attitudes, and developing
confidence. It also provides opportunities to see oneself. It brings
reality to classrooms and it does so dramatically and convincingly
(solves the problem of time and space).
• It brings theory to life and
By teaches that(PhD)
Fetene R Melka one’s perception of a situation
91
is not always like others.
Shortcomings of role playing
• Loss and expense which would result from practicing in real-life
situation
• Students may misinterpret it and emphasize its entertainment value
than that of its educative value.

The Questioning and Answer technique
• As a method, it is an informal assessment technique,

which is used with large groups of students.
• It is a key technique of teaching because of its several
contributions in teaching and learning.
• The types could be content and process, lower order and
higher order, convergent and divergent or factual and
problem solving (heuristic) question methods.

To make the questioning and answer
method effective follow the points below
• Formulate clear and precise questions
• Adapt the questions to the students’ level of maturity and capacity;
• Make all students actively participant;
• State the questions before naming a student to respond;
• Give enough time to think over and must demand complete answers;
• Listen to the given answer carefully and evaluate it;
• Use praise and other encouragement;
• Use pause /wait time effectively between your Q and student’s
Response and students’ reactions and your reaction
• Be active in accepting students’ responses in positive manner;
• Paraphrase students’ responses but not answering one’s own
questions.
• Using the techniques of paraphrasing, rephrasing, and redirection in
oral questioning is important.
The project method
• It is a method where students are usually given an individual topic for
an in depth analysis. They often have to work independently, do a
kind of research and report either in writing or verbally to a group.
• The project could involve a group of students working together on
different aspect of the same problem.
• It is a co-operative study where students are grouped and are made

to produce tangible product. It is done with relatively little direct
interaction with the teachers.
• The projects could be on construction of model houses, growing

crops, preparation of food, collection of insects, rocks, cultural
materials, developing program, oral literature, plants, seeds, sample
products, specimen /model of materials/element to analysis, etc.

Specific criteria to make projects useful
1. Timely Environmental and seasonal factors need to be considered:
2. Useful - the practical aim of the project must be identified. It must
fulfill a long-standing need. The learning experiences in a project
must be capable of being applied in life;
3. Challenging - project should neither be too simple and easy nor too
long and difficult.
4. Economical - projects should not unnecessarily cost (energy and
money) of students. There should be optimum use of the time;
5. Rich in experience - It must be capable of correlating different
subjects and practical activities of life (authentic) ;
6. Enhancing co-operation –it should allow students to think and plan
independently and co-operatively. The project (s) should be
implemented in such a way that the students are kept active both
physically as well as mentally.

The advantages of project method
• it provides a conductve environment for learning through practice
and independently;
• it gives satisfaction and happiness to students;
• it provides situation to create unity of different subjects;
• it provides sufficient opportunities to the students to work co-
operatively for common purpose;
• it cultivates virtues like tolerances, independence, open-
mindedness, resource fullness, etc.
• it discourages memorization. It stresses problem - solving, thinking
and reasoning;
• it provides freedom to work enthusiastically on self-chosen projects;
• it solves disciplinary problems for students don’t get time to involve
in anti-social acts;
• it makes learning durable, and makes students to get joy and learn in
a natural way.
Limitations of project Method
1. A project method is a time-consuming – this is so for students are
left to work on their projects by themselves. They may take long to
complete the work.
2. It is very expensive in terms of getting financial and materials
required.
3. It requires highly trained teachers who are well rounded in many
fields of study.
4. The materials required for project method may not be available
easily and cheaply.
5. It is difficult to identify the share of work of individual members of the
group if it is a group project.
7. Over use of a group project method creates a dependency of an
individual on a group.

The Problem Solving Method
• Conscious, planned and purposeful effort to
arrive at some solutions
• It is the combination of many methods
where trial and error approach is applied
• It requires self directed learning.
• Learners make their own discoveries
• It helps students develop their reasoning
power
• It includes inquiry and project method.
Steps in the use of problem
solving method
1. Identifying and defining the problem. Make a clear
conception of the problem and state it in a manner that it
leads to a solution.
2. Formulating a hypothesis /basic questions to answer the
questions.
3. Collecting and organizing the data and information
4. Making analysis of data collected.
5. Drawing conclusions on the basis of findings
6. Applying the findings (results).

Other Important Methods and Techniques
• The field trip method
• The student Independent study method
• Team teaching (Hierarchical team and Synergetic team
Organization of team:
1. The unit specialist team approach (the same field but
specialized in different subjects ).
2. The differentiated team approach (diversified discipline)
3. Ad-hoc team approach

Advantages of team teaching
Team teaching method provides the following advantages. Team teaching:
1. stimulates discussion among teachers who are jointly responsible for a
group of students;
2. develops a strong sense of involvement and responsibility among
students;
3. gives adequate opportunities to the students for free
discussion/expression;
4. provides opportunities for the development of human relations which are
essential for social adjustment.
5. provides opportunities for the students to get better knowledge, make
proper use of resources, staff, etc.;
6. helps to make lessons fit to the needs of the learners and maintain
classroom discipline;
7. helps teachers to evaluate the work of one another, to improve their own
teaching and instruction
8. provides a flexible class size and help to provide guidance for the
learners as well as inexperienced
By Fetene Rteachers,
Melka (PhD)etc. 102
Active learning
• It refers to techniques where students do more than simply

listen to a lecture. Students are DOING something including
discovering, processing, and applying information.
• Active learning "derives from two basic assumptions: (1)

that learning is by nature an active endeavor and (2) that
different people learn in different ways" (Meyers and Jones,
1993).
• Research shows greater learning when students engage in
active learning.


Active Learning Techniques cont’d
• The following active learning techniques

can be used in small and large classes,
and with all levels of students in any
discipline. (But, it is up to the teacher to
choose the appropriate active learning
techniques for the concerned topic).

1. Think-Pair-Share
Give students a task such as a question or
problem to solve, an original example to
develop, etc.
Have them work on this 2-5 minutes alone
(think). Then have them discuss their
ideas for 3-5 minutes with the student
sitting next to them (pair).
Finally, ask or choose student pairs to share
their ideas with the whole class (share).
2. Collaborative learning groups
• These may be formal or informal, graded or not, short-
term or long-term. Generally, you assign students to
heterogeneous groups of 3-6 students.
• They choose a leader and a scriber (note-taker). They

are given a task to work on together. Often, student
preparation for the CLG has been required earlier
(reading or homework).
• The group produces a group answer or paper or project.

These work is best in small group to medium size
classes,

3. Student-led review sessions
• Instead of the traditional instructor-led review session,
have the students do the work.
• Each student is to ask at least one question related to

the material he or she doesn't understand, and to try to
answer a question raised by another student.
• Students can also practice discussing, illustrating and

applying difficult material or concepts.
• For the second half of the review session, the whole

class works together. Students may ask questions; other
students volunteer to answer them.
4. Games
• Games such as jeopardy can be adapted
to course material and used for review, for
assignments, or for exams.
• They can be used at the individual, small
group or full class levels.
• There are now some computer programs,

for example, to help you create games for
crossword puzzles.
5. Analysis or reactions to videos
• Videos offer an alternative presentation mode
for course material. Videos should be relatively
short (5-20 minutes).
• Prepare students ahead of time with reaction or

discussion questions or a list of ideas on which
to focus; this will help them pay attention ( For
example, to analyze the speech of individuals).
• After the video, have them work alone or in

pairs to answer critical questions, write a
"review" or reaction, orR apply
By Fetene Melka (PhD)a theory. 109
6. Student debates
• These can be formal or informal, individual
or group, graded or not, etc.
• They allow students the opportunity to
take a thesis or position and gather data
and logic to support that view, critically.
• Debates also give students experience
with verbal presentations.
• Some faculty members ask students their
personal view on an issue and then make
them argue the opposite position.
7. Student generated exam questions
• This can be used for review or for the
actual exam.
• This technique helps students actively

process material, gives them a better
understanding of the difficulties of writing
reliable and valid exam questions, helps
them review material, and gives them
practice for the exam.

8. Mini-research proposals or projects; a
class research symposium
• Have the students work on designing a research
study on a topic from the class. In some
situations, you may be able to have them collect
data during class time (observe some situation
or give out some short surveys) or you may
have them doing this as part of an outside-of-
class project.
• Either way, have students present their research

in a class research symposium similar to what
we do at professional meetings. Invite other
faculty and students.
9. Analyze case studies
• Bring in case studies for students to read.

• Have students discuss and analyze the case,
applying concepts, data, model and theory from
the cases.
• They can work as individuals or in groups or do
this as a think-pair-share. Consider combining
this with a brief in-class writing assignment.

10. Keeping journals or logs
• Have students make journal/diary or log entries (keep
records) periodically (on paper or computer, in or outside
of class).
• Require a brief critical reflection or analysis of each entry

as well.
• They then discuss this instance applying the terms and

theories in the course . Be aware of ethical issues if you
ask students to record and analyze personal events or
issues.
• It is similar to a miniature portfolio.

11. Write and produce a newsletter
• Have small groups of students produce a
brief newsletter on a specific topic related
to the classroom discussion.
• Students should include articles with
relevant research, post information on
upcoming related public events, and so
on.
• Share these with faculty and students in
related courses or in the major course
under discussion.
12. Concept maps
• Are diagrams that represent organized
knowledge.
• It is grounded in the cognitive learning theory.
• They are graphical representation of knowledge
that are composed of concepts and the
relationships between them.
• Concepts are usually enclosed in circles or
boxes, and the relationships between concepts
are indicated by connecting lines that link them
together.

Concept mapping cont’d
• Concepts are represented in a hierarchical fashion with
the most inclusive, most general concepts at the top of
the map and the more specific, less general concepts
arranged below.
• Inclusion of cross-links to show explicit relations between
concepts.
• We use linking phrases between concepts to join
concepts to form a meaningful proposition
• Focus questions are the base to construct concept
maps.
• The advantages of this active learning technique is that it
helps to summarize, to clarify, to help teachers to know
learners’ understanding level, to help learners find
information more quickly
Constructing concept mapping
1. Define the topic (focus question). If the focus question are more it would be
difficult to manage.
2. Identify and list the most important or general concepts that are associated
with that topic
3. Ordering the concept from top to bottom in the mapping field, going from
most general and inclusive to the most specific (hierarchical arrangement or
morphology;
4. Adding links to form a preliminary concept map
5. Adding linking phrases to describe the relationships among concepts;
6. Looking for the cross link, which link together concepts that are in different
areas
7. Reviewing the map making necessary changes to the structure or content ,
if any.
Try to develop a concept map by taking a give title in you field of study. Ex. Solar
radiation (emissions, scattered, reflection, absorption, diffusion ,
atmospheric surface, pressure temperature, greenhouse ,----)

12. Concept mapping
• Here students create visual representations of
models, ideas, and the relationships between
concepts.
• They draw circles containing concepts/words
and lines, with connecting phrases on the lines,
between concepts.
• These can be done individually or in groups,
once or repeated as students acquire new
information and perspectives, and can be
shared, discussed, and critiqued.
• Influences of certain variables, cause and
effects,… food chain, food webs, relationships
between natural phenomenon.
13. Lab work
• The effectiveness of in HEIs
• Varieties lab work
• The fundamental purpose of any labwork
task is to help students to make links
between two domains: the domain of real
objects or observable things and the
domain of ideas/theory.
• To make lab work more effective we need
to think harder about its use.
Lab work cont’d
• Varieties of lab work
• O level where the problem, the procedure
and the conclusion are specified in
advance.
• Where the problems, the procedures and
the conclusion are left open

Lab work cont’d
• Illustration of theory
• Exercise(to practice standard procedures)
• Experiences (to give students a ‘feel’ for
phenomena)
• Investigations (to allow students to
experience scientific enquiry).

Lab work cont’d
• Formal (to illustrate laws and concepts)
• Experimental (open ended)
• Divergent(from a common start)
Skills/procedures related

The effectivenes of labwork for
teaching and learning
1. The extent to which the students’ actions
match those that the teacher intended
2. Is the extent to which the students’
learning matches the learning objectives.

The process of developing and
evaluating a lab Teacher’s
work task
A. Teacher’s view of
objectives (what science
students are Teacher’
intended to learn) s view of
The practical learning
Design features of and
task (what students institutional
B. are intended to do) context
Students’
What students view of
C. actually do science Students’
view of
learning
What students
D. actually learn
The practical
or institutional
context
Producing a profile of a lab work
task
a. The intended learning outcome (or
learning objectives)
b. Key elements of the task design
. The cognitive structure of the task
. The level and nature of students’
involvement
. The practical context of the task

The learning objectives in
labwork
• TO help students to:
a. Content .them
Identify objects and phenomena and become familiar with
. Learn a fact/facts
.Learn a concept
. Learn a relationships
. Learn a theory /model
b. Process
. Learn how to use a standard lab instrument or piece of
apparatus
. Learn how to use a standard procedure
. Learn how to plan an investigation to address a specific
question or problem
. Learn how to process data
. Learn how to use data to support
By Fetene R Melkaa(PhD)
conclusion 127
Learn how to communicate the results of lab.
Cognitive structure for lab work
• What students are intended to do with
objects and observable things
(describing/identifying, a relationships, test
a predictions, propose an explanation.

• That is what students are intended to do
with objects and observables
A.Use C. Make
An object
. An observation/measuring . A material
instrument An event
. A laboratory device/arrangement.
. A laboratory procedure
B. Present D. Observe
An object An object
A material
An event
A physical quantity ( a variable)
What students are intended to
do with ideas
• Report observations
• Identify a pattern
• Explore relationship between objects,
physical quantities (variables) (friction of
forces between different materials)
• Invent (discover) a new concepts
• Determine of the value a physical quantity
which is not measured directly . Example,
measuring acceleration due to gravity
using pendulum. By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 130
Levels and nature of students
involvement
• Degree of openness/closure of lab work
task
Specified Decided by Chosen by
by teacher discussion students
Question to be addressed
Procedure to be followed
Method of handling data
collection
Interpretation of results

Nature of students’ involvement
in lab work
• Demonstrated by teacher; students
observe
• Demonstrated by teacher; Students
observe and assist as directed
• Carried out by students in smaller group
• Carried out by individual students

Task design-the practical
context
• Simple description features of the task
• Its duration (20’, 80’, 2-3 periods
• The people with whom the student interacts
(technicians,/glassblowers, advanced
students, others, those who completed the
tasks, teachers)
• The information source available ( Guiding
worksheet, textbook, handbook on
apparatus, data book, computerized data)
• The type of apparatus provided (everyday
equipment, standard lab equipment,
standard lab equipment and interface to
computer)
• Source of the data (real world inside or
outside lab), simulation on computer CDRM)
• The tools available for processing data
(manual calculation/computer)

Methods of teaching and learning used in UI
linkages
Using experience in Natural setting
The following are some of the methods that promote experiential learning
out side the university:
A. Field trips
• It combines work in a university and work in naturalistic setting through
entertainment.
B. Placements
• It gives the students to experience of working environment over a period
of time. It provides the students a responsibility or a role within the
organization to participate in a meaningful way through supervision from
the instructor or industry personnel.
C. Work-based learning projects
. It is common to the students who attend their study as well as work in
industry at the same time.By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 135
Methods of T&L in UI linkage
• Community based education: A form of instruction where trainees
learn professional competencies in a community setting focusing on
the problems of local community.
• It is learning that takes place in a setting external to the higher
education institution where learners are encouraged to actively
apply concepts and information, skills or attitude to local situation
where the study does not end with giving a final examination or
grading of research paper, but would extend to classroom activities
to include an action research and experiment in order to observe
concepts and theories in action.
• The learning activities here extensively use community as a learning
environment.
• The community members serve as resources and partners in
teaching and learning.

• Work-based Learning: refers to any formal higher
education learning that is based wholly or predominantly in
a work setting.
• It is a component of a learning program that focuses on the

application of theory in an authentic, work-based context.
• It addresses specific competencies identified for the
acquisition of a qualification, which relate to the
development of skills that will make the learner employable
and will assist developing his/her personal skills.
• Employers and professional bodies are involved in the
assessment of experiential learning, together with
academic staff.

• Co-operative education/ training: a
training that promotes the concept of
enhanced learning based on the co-
operation between institutions and industry,
business and the public sectors.
• Training is provided by and in the industry
using the industry as a resource center.
• It involves sharing of information between U
&I
Job-shadow: is a university supervised career
exploration activity, where students visit worksites
and “shadow” employees as they perform their
jobs. They are designed to be short term.
It emphasizes observing the work place, not

participating as productive worker.
It provides the students a meaningful introduction

to the world of work and provides a context for
understanding the relationship
By Fetene R Melka (PhD) and interaction
139
between the classroom, and the work place.
• Internships: Internships help students move
from universities to work places by offering
hands on learning, in real work setting, over a
relatively long period of time.
• The internship is designed to give students a
better sense of the jobs within a particular
business or industry; to provide students with
information about all aspects of the business;
and to aid them in understanding, through
experience how each part of a company helps
another in meeting the goals and objectives of a
business or industry.
• Apprenticeship: Is on-the-job training
under the supervision of a skilled
tradesperson combined with classroom
training. It is an effective and efficient way
of proving skilled workers in the trades.
• Its advantages include hands-on, up-to
date training, opportunity to earn while you
learn and a promise of a good career).

Service learning:
A teaching and learning strategy that
integrates meaningful community service
with instruction and reflection to enrich the
learning experience, teach civic
responsibility, and strengthen community.
It focuses on voluntary service as well as

learning at the same time.
Unit 5: Classroom Organization and
Management of the instructional
activities in higher education
• 1: Definitions and purposes of
classroom organization
What is classroom organization?
Classroom organization is a deliberate
creation of the learning environment (both
physical and social) by considering the
instructional objectives and the specific
activities to be done.

Crm org cont’d
• Classroom organization as a conscious
arrangement of the classroom in its totality to
achieve the instructional objectives can be seen
in terms of:
A.Patterns for arranging participants (small group
versus whole class presentation);
B.Resources used or sources of information;
C.Rules of appropriateness

The major patterns of the classroom seating
arrangement include:
• Making students sit in rows facing the
teacher and the blackboard (row-and
column).
The advantages
• it appears to be very convenient for formal teaching of a lot of
students in one class;
• it makes the blackboard/whiteboard in front of all students and
becomes easy and accessible to the teacher and the writing can
be seen easily by all students;
• it makes easy to move between rows and orderly distribution and
collection of instructional materials;
• it makes the management of students’ discipline easy through
row monitors
Raw-and –column cont’d
The disadvantages include that:
• the student at the back side cannot see
the work or practice of student in the front
side;
• it is difficult to the teacher to evaluate each
student’s work in the classroom;
• it is not convenient to practice different
methods of teaching such as small group
discussions, demonstrations, etc.
2. Cluster seating pattern
• The cluster pattern arrangement is characterized by
the formation of little clusters of students in different
positions in the classroom. It is very much convenient
for buzz-group discussions.
• In cluster grouping, the size of each group should not be

more than six members.
• Grouping can be done randomly or by considering the

interest, abilities or compatibility of group members. At
all times, there must be some one who acts as a leader.
The leadership should rotate.
The cluster seating pattern provides the following
advantages :
• It makes students to communicate easily with each
other;
• It is easier for students to work as a team and to help
each other as peers;
• Leadership and co-operation are two important elements
of classroom relationship which result from this kind of
seating arrangement;
• It makes the management of the classroom discipline
easy when there is the need for students to work in
group or solve problems together.
• The arrangement is not convenient to teach large class
size and it is time consuming (disadvantage).

The Horse – Shoe Pattern Arrangement
• An arrangement where the teacher sits in the center, half

way along the diameter.
This arrangement provides the following advantages:
• It can be used when the lesson entails a lot of
discussion;
• It enables the teacher to check every member easily and
help;
• It enables students to consult (talk to/discuss) with each
other;
• It is easy to rearrange (for the cross over) the group
without wasting time.

The Round – table pattern Arrangement
• It is a good arrangement for discussion lessons. It can
be round or square.
• Unlike the horse – shoe arrangement, the authority of
the teacher is completely decentralized and formal
leadership roles are minimized considerably. There is
usually no group leader in this arrangement.
Its advantages include that:
• it is an arrangement convenient when there is anything
to be recorded or to be listened on tape;
• it is useful when there is just one object to be used as
display for a lesson. It can be placed at the center for all
to see and comment upon;

Conclusion
In general, classroom organization as an arrangement of activities,
students, classroom resources for instruction differs from time to
time and activity to activity.
The instructional objectives and the activities to be done will dictate
classroom organization. Some activities demand larger space to
move freely while others require silent seat works. Some demand
talking loudly while others need no noise. Some require the use of
different instructional materials with a maximum care while some
don’t need materials at all.
• Thus, classroom organization is a prerequisite to achieve objectives
easily, if the teacher fails to organize the students, the activities and
the whole class for the required task resources such as time,
energy, money and materials will be wasted. Students may involve
in some kinds of misbehaviors.

2: Classroom
Management:
Definition, Purposes
Classifications and
Causes of Classroom
Misbehaviors.
Definition of CRM Mngt
• It is a process of managing the teaching and learning activities to
get maximum students’ learning.
• It also includes establishing and maintaining order.
• It requires careful planning and providing students with pleasant and
supportive climate for learning; creating interests and desires to
learn and achieve; establishing control; avoiding disciplinary
disturbances and promoting effective students’ learning.
• Effective classroom management depends on the nature
of the task at hand. For instance, laboratory classes
allow students for a great amount of conversation and
movement and lecture sessions require quiet attention
and purposeful conversation.
Effective classroom management requires:
• Good planning;
Preparation of one’s lesson by identifying the
instructional objectives, lesson contents,
methods of teaching, materials, organizing a
learning environment, setting rules, nature of the
students, etc.
• Skills of Conducting the class;
It demands the ability and skills to use the
selected methods, materials, appropriate styles,
pacing, motivating and guiding students, etc.
• Monitoring: It is a process of maintaining
classroom order ByorFetene
discipline
R Melka (PhD)
by using different
154
approaches and techniques.
Purposes and Areas of Classroom
Management
Effective classroom management helps in the
advancement to the fulfillment of the objective of
teaching and facilitates learning.
Classroom management aims at:
• promoting an environment (physical and emotional) to be
conducive to effective learning;
• guaranteeing class time to be used for learning
effectively;
• securing the support and co-operation of students in
classroom activities; and
• ensuring the active and meaningful engagement of
students to the learning task at hand.
Areas of Classroom Management
Classroom management involves managing:
A. Contents of the lesson(s)
B. Methods of teaching (the ability to select the methods and apply them in concrete
situation)
Methods of teaching are selected by considering:
a. the instructional objectives;
b. the nature of the contents to be taught;
c. the ability, experience, maturity level, needs and interests of the
learners;
d. the facilities / conditions of the institution/school; and
e. the teacher’s personality
• presenting the lesson by making students active participants;
• accepting students’ feelings, ideas and questions
• responding to students’ questions effectively;
• reinforcing students’ activities;
• applying the major principles of teaching;
• considering individual differences and accommodating them; etc.
• the use of appropriate questioning techniques that involve students in applying their
earlier knowledge and skills such as making the questions convergent (factual
By Fetene
nature), divergent (multiple responses R Melka (PhD)
questions) and commenting. 156
Areas of Classroom management cont’d
C. Time allocated to a given lesson/course;
• The different activities of a teacher and students are
done within the given time. All teachers are expected to
manage their time properly. The time management
involves:
• distributing the time proportionally to the different
activities;
• keeping one’s pace of presentation;
• making appropriate decision on the right time to make
students active participant or involve them in doing
individual seat works or in group activities
• fixing the time for questions in the middle or at the end of
the lesson; By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 157
• displaying teaching aids at the right time;
D. Materials and space;

Teachers at all levels are expected to manage the
materials and spaces set for the instructional activities.
The management includes:
• the use of the appropriate instructional materials /
teaching aids;
• the application of the rules in the use of different
instructional materials;
• the management of students’ seat;
• the arrangement of materials in their proper order;
• making the classroom hold enough seats and other
resources
E. managing students’ behavior and their social
relationships through a democratic way
It requires:
• creating conditions for students’ good interpersonal
relations;
• preparing the classroom atmosphere for co-operation,
mutual help and concern to each other as opposed to
conflicting conditions;
• creating mechanisms to identify individual differences
and accommodating them; etc.
• Avoiding prejudices, stereotypes, ethnocentrism, and
discrimination among students (avoiding social identity
problems) in relation to sex, political and religious
affiliations, ethnicity,Bylanguage
Fetene R Melkabackground
(PhD) of the 159
student, etc.
Causes of classroom misbehavior
1. Teacher –related causes
1. Poor teaching
2. lack of planning and preparation;
3. ineffective style of presentation;
4. failure to use appropriate teaching aids (suitable
audio-visuals)
5. failure to involve students in the instructional
activities and failure to apply the major principles of
teaching;
6. failure to structure one’s lessons and present them
step by step;
7. failure to set the right task;
8. failure to enforce the rules
By Fetene set, …
R Melka (PhD) 160
Student – related causes
Antipathy to college/school or disinterest in

learning in general;
Lack of interest in a particular subject
Dislike to a teacher or hostility/unfriendly

towards a teacher;
Attention seeking;
Ignorance of the classroom rules;
Poor communication with peers/classmates
Student related cont’d
• unsettled or disruptive home

environment (separated, divorced ,
orphan, …).
• Unpleasant peer relations;
• Emotional upset / distress/suffering
• Bad physical/material condition

Institutional Environment Related Causes
– The absence of sufficient materials for the

classes, laboratories, workshops and for
field trips:
– Conflicting rules of the school and the
home;
– the class size;

Approaches and
Techniques to Maintain
Classroom Discipline
1. The Authoritarian Classroom Management Approach
• The use of controlling strategies. The major goal of the teacher is
just to control students’ behavior by any mechanism. The approach
offers five strategies that the teacher might wish to include in his/her
repertoire of managerial strategies They are:
a. establishing and enforcing rules;
b. issuing commands, directives and orders;
c. utilizing mild desist (gently asking to stop), requesting students to
stop misbehaving;
d. utilizing proximity control; and
e. utilizing isolation and exclusion
• Establishing and enforcing rules
• The process of establishing rules is one in which the teacher sets
limits by telling the student what is expected of him or her and why.
2.The Intimidation/ threatening/bullying
Classroom Management Approach
• Like the authoritarian approach, it is a process of

controlling student behavior.
• Unlike the authoritarian approach (which stresses the
use of humane teacher behavior) the intimidation
approach emphasizes the use of intimidating/threatening
teacher behaviors like harsh forms of punishment such
as sarcasm/criticism, ridicule /scorn/disrespect, coercion,
threats, force and disapproval / condemnation/blame
(abusing, harassing …) .
• The teacher forces the students to behave according to
the teacher’s dictates.

3. The Permissive/tolerant/accommodating Classroom
Management Approach
• This approach maximizes students’ freedom.

• The major theme here is that the teacher should
allow students to do what they want whenever
and whatever they want.
• The role of the teacher is to promote the freedom
of students and thereby foster their natural
development.
• It helps students develop self – directness, self-
discipline and self – responsibility if students are
made free physically and psychologically.
4. The Cookbook Classroom Management Approach
• It provides descriptions of lists of things a

teacher should or should not do when he/she is
confronted with various classroom management
problems. Sample of lists of “dos” and “don’ts”
are given as follows:
• always reprimand/warning/talking to a pupil in
private;
• never raise your voice when admonishing/giving
warning to students
• always be firm and fair when dealing with
students;
5. The Instructional Classroom Management
Approach
• This is an approach, which is to be done based on the
contention that carefully designed and implemented
instruction will prevent problems. The approach argues that
effective management is the result of high quality
instructional planning. Thus, the teacher needs to plan
his/her lesson by considering the needs, interests, etc of
students. It plays both preventing and solving managerial
problems. However, well – designed and implemented
instructional activities contribute more to prevention than to
solving problems that have already occurred in a classroom.
• Advocates to this approach suggest that the teacher should
consider the following instructional managerial strategies:

Instructional classroom strategy cont’d
• employing effective movement management;
• establishing classroom routines/procedures;
• giving clear directions;
• utilizing interest boosting mechanisms;
• planning and modifying the classroom
environment; and
• restructuring the situations (flexibility)
• providing interesting, relevant and appropriate
curriculum and instruction;

6. Creating a Positive Social – Emotional
Climate in the Classroom
• It is an approach, which assumes that learning is
maximized in a positive classroom climate, which, in turn,
stems from positive interpersonal relationships. Thus,
both teacher – student and student – student relationships
can be easily achieved if the teacher creates a favorable
and friendly classroom atmosphere. Obviously, this is an
approach that conceives the classroom as a social system
in which group processes are of major importance. It
strongly assumes that instruction takes place within a
group context.
• Therefore, the nature and behavior of the classroom group
are viewed as having significant effects on learning, even
though learning is seen as an individual process. At this
point the role of the teacher is to foster the development
and operation of an effective classroom group.
7 The principle of Behavior Modification
Approach
• This views classroom management as the process of
modifying students’ behavior.
• learning is influenced largely, if not entirely, by events in
the environment.
• The four factors can be helpful to positive behavioral
modification: reinforcement, punishment, extinction/
letting to disappear and negative reinforcements. Thus,
the teacher is required to master and apply the factors
identified above.
• These different approaches can further be classified into
specific classroom management techniques.

Principles of behavioral modifications cont’d
• Disciplining;
• The Provision of Freedom;
• Sharing Responsibilities
• The Provision of Incentives/
Reinforcement /Motivation;
• Establishing and maintaining good
Interpersonal relationships;
• Making Effective / Good Teaching;
• Co-operative rule making; and
•
Explaining Procedures.
Curative / Remedial Techniques
• Ignoring
• Eye – Contact:
• Closing – in or Proximity, physical closeness: Touch and signal
• Humor
• Separating misbehaving student
• Restructuring
changing the teaching method; (give individual work), giving them
the energizer or activator allow them to sing their favorite song,
physical exercise, tell them jokes or short stories, giving the class
five minutes rest, etc.
• Open discussion

Assessment in HEIs
Different Types of Assessment
1.Summative assessment vs Formative
Assessment
2.Norm Referenced Assessment vs
Criterion Referenced Assessment
3.Terminal assessment vs Continuous
Assessment

Types of assessment
• Criterion referencing not only directs the

curriculum it also focuses assessment and
allows for full descriptions of what a
person has achieved,” Brown and Knight
(2004:19).
• “Norm referencing tells us little about
anything , except the students’ ability in
relation to another group of students of
unknown characteristics” (Brown and
Knight, 2004:18).
Types of assessment . . .
Continuous Assessment Terminal Assessment
Takes place throughout a course and Carried out at the end of a course and
can take a range of forms generally for summative assessment
To determine whether the student has
passed or failed or to contribute to
their final mark or grade
It can be entirely summative or a To determine whether the student has
combination of both formative and passed or failed or to contribute to
summative. their final mark or grade

Forms of continuous assessment
• Essay
• Assignments
• Self-assessment
• Ongoing tests
• Lab or practical work
• Work experience
• Portfolios
• Peer assessment
Assessment of Learning
• Intended to provide a measure of achievement
• Carried out periodically /sometimes, at the end of a
unit, module or year for example.
• Communicated by a grade or percentage
• Used to compare individuals and to track progress
• Used as part of selection process.

Assessment for Learning
• It is a shift from judging learning to considering how best
to support it.
• It is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for
use by learners and their teachers to decide where the
learners are in their learning, where they need to go and
how best to go there.
• Takes place continuously
• It is about using the information gained through
assessment to improve learning (relate it to clear
objectives or standards).
• The shift from summative assessment can be represented
as a move from assessment as something done to
students to something done with and for students.

Characteristics of Assessment for Learning
1. Sharing learning objectives with pupils

• Agree on learning objectives with individual pupils
• Express them in everyday language
• Reviews learning with individuals against the objectives at the end of the
lesson
2. Helping pupils to know and recognize the standards they are aiming for.
3. Involving pupils in peer and self assessment
• Ask individual pupils to evaluate their work in front of their peer during the
plenary.
• Ask pupils to suggest improvements that could be made to another pupils
work
• Provide plenty of time for pupils to reflect on what they have learnt

Characteristics of Assessment for Learning …
4. Promote confidence that every pupil can improve.

Provide positive and constructive feedback
5. Involving both teachers and pupils in reviewing and
reflecting on assessment information.
• Maintain continuous dialogue about the progress being
made.
• Frequently remind pupils of learning objectives outcomes
and success criteria.
• Circulate around and help them

Assessment …
Who Assesses= Both teachers and students
• Why assessment?
• As a means of providing feedback to teachers
and students about on going progress in
learning; has a direct influence on the quality of
students’ learning experiences and thus on their
level of achievement (Formative assessment).
• As a means of communicating the nature and
level of students’ achievement at various points
in their formal education (Summative).

Why assessment …
• As a means of summarizing what has
been achieved for external use
(Certification).
• As part of the information used when

judging educational institutions and the
educational system (evaluation and quality
control).
How to assess ?
• Must be as part of the teaching and learning process,
involving both students and teachers.
• Must reflect all aspects of the curriculum (content and
objectives ie all chapters covered and objectives
formulated and set in the course)
• Must be suitable for the purpose it is being used for
(validity).
• The result must be communicated to students so that it
supports learning
• Difficulty in assessing both the affective and
psychomotor domains (using anecdotal records,
checklists, and rating scales)
When to assess ?
• Regularly / continuously where each lesson informs the
teachers and the students about learning needs to
teaching requirements. Often informal and not
necessarily written down (formal).
• Specific tasks can be set and measured against set
criteria, covering knowledge, skills and attitudes
(criterion referenced, formative).
• Summing up of achievements , in example a portfolio of
evidence , usually derived from a series of formative
assessment over a period of time (criterion referenced-
summative).
• Examination that tests the work that has been done over
a period of time. Example, a module, a semester, a year
(usually norm referenced – summative).
What for
• Provide information to students about
knowledge, understanding and progress
towards agreed targets.
• Provide information to students about

their learning, so they can adjust their
learning, inform them their planning and
evaluate their effectiveness.
Two key issues in Assessment
• Reliability:
• Refers to the consistency of and explicability over time ,
instruments and groups.
• For a test to be reliable one should expect to get similar
results if you carried out the assessment with a similar
group in a similar context .
• Validity:
It is concerned with whether the assessment measures
what you set out to measure.

The END

Main Assignments
• Ideas of a University
• Reflections on the implementations of the objectives and guiding values of HE
in Ethiopia
• The nexus between teaching and research in HEIs
• Technology Transfer models from University to Industry
• Measures of the Quality of Higher Education
• The roles of industry in HE curriculum development
• Basic Ideas of Modularized curriculum
• Strategies of motivating students’ Learning in HEIs=
• Instructional Technologies and HE: Teaching and Learning in Focus
• Roles of instructional media in teaching engineering subjects
• Collaborative Vs Competitive Learning in HEIs
• The application of Cognitive Learning Theory in CSEGG
• Simulation as method of teaching and learning in HEIs
• Community Based Education: Experience of JU
• .
Topics for Assignment
• Internship program: Practices and challenges
• Student advisement: Theories and practices
• Problem-based learning in CE education
• Problem-based learning and education in CE
• Application of concept mapping in CE education
• Multiculturalism/Diversity and how to manage it in HEIs

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A Presentation on the Module

Pedagogy (CTPD 601)

By Fetene R. Melka (PhD)

Department of Curriculum and Instruction,

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 2

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 3

 Increased Tax Revenues  Higher Salaries and Benefits

 Reduced Crime Rates  Improved Health / Life Expectancy

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 5

• It is allied to creating knowledge-based

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 7

2. To promote and enhance research focusing on

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 8

3. To ensure and safeguard that education and

4. To design and provide community and

5. To ensure institutional autonomy with

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 9

7. To promote and uphold/support justice, fairness,

8. To promote democratic culture and uphold

9. To ensure fairness in the distribution of public

• Quality and speedy service delivery;

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 12

• Competencies and abilities for communicating effectively, creative and

• The teaching of human rights standards and education on the needs of

• Determination of academic curriculum by the academic personnel

. They are the major actors/partners and responsible

. Considering them is as one of the ways in responding to the

. Decision makers and service providers need to place the

. We need to consider their demographic (age, sex, gender),

. Understanding them at entry level and provision

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 17

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 18

• The ‘publish or perish’ or ‘publish or be damned rests largely on the

• Research is important for HE teachers at least for three purposes:

2. Ensures teacher’s ability of advising students (making

3. For promotion: No research no promotion, “publish

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 19

Principles for Development of a

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 22

• Universities are autonomous and operate in a

– Formulation of Aims, Goals and Objectives

– Selection of Learning Opportunities

– Organization of Learning Opportunities

– Methodological Strategies/ pedagogical approaches

– Resources (references and materials of teaching and learning)

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 25

Who are the students?

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 27

What level of difficulty can students cope with

Is the student cohort a homogeneous group or

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 29

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 30

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 31

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 32

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 33

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 35

What are contents and learning opportunities/ experiences?

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 36

• Maintaining continuity= Planned repetition with

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 37

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 38

• The inclusion of new dev’ts in the field of

By Fetene R Melka (PhD) 42

• It is developing the mental caliber of the individuals