Chromatin, Chromosomes, and the Cell Nucleus

pp.105-110; 122
 Two specific DNA structures are essential for the maintenance of a
constant chromosome complement in a given species: centromeres and
telomeres.
 Centromeres consist of DNA sequences that, together with 90 or more
proteins, direct the segregation of chromosomes during cell division.
 Telomeres are specialized structures that protect the ends of
chromosomes and permit complete replication of the chromosomal
DNA.
 The first levels of packaging shorten the DNA about 40-fold by wrapping
it around histone proteins to form nucleosomes.
 The complex of DNA with its packaging proteins is called chromatin.
 Nuclei contain two broad classes of chromatin: heterochromatin,
which is highly condensed throughout the cell cycle and is
generally inactive in transcription, and euchromatin, which is less
condensed and contains actively transcribed genes.

Different types of chromatin are defined by complex patterns of

posttranslational modifications of the histone proteins.

These modifications direct the binding of protein readers that

establish chromatin states to promote or repress gene expression or
serve other structural roles.
 The Every organism is defined by a blueprint consisting of information
stored in its chromosomes.
 With the exception of a few viruses, these chromosomes are composed
of enormously long circular or linear molecules of DNA.
 Chromosomes have fascinated biologists ever since it was understood
that they contain the genetic information that defines each organism—its
genome.
 After Watson and Crick’s proposal of a structure for DNA in 1953, it was
realized that the DNA is a linear sequence of A, T, G, and C bases that can
be thought of as a code to describe the physical attributes for every
organism.
In prokaryotes, the single chromosome is concentrated in a
specialized region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.

In eukaryotes, the chromosomes are packaged in a specialized

membrane-bounded compartment known as the nucleus.

This difference in organization has important consequences for the

regulation of gene expression.
Chromosomes are enormous DNA molecules that can be
propagated stably through countless generations of dividing
cells (Fig. 7.1).
Genes are the reason for the existence of the
chromosomes, but in higher eukaryotes, they make up a
relatively small fraction of the chromosomal DNA.
Cells package chromosomal DNA with roughly twice its
weight of protein.
This DNA-protein complex, called chromatin.
In addition to the genes, only three classes of specialized
DNA sequences are needed to make a fully functional
chromosome:
(a) a centromere,
(b) two telomeres,
and (c) an origin of DNA replication for approximately
every 100,000 base pairs (bp).

Centromeres regulate the partitioning of chromosomes during

mitosis and meiosis.
Telomeres protect the ends of the chromosomal DNA molecules and
ensure their complete replication.
Chromosome Morphology and Nomenclature

With few specialized exceptions, chromosomes

from somatic cells of higher eukaryotes are
visualized directly only during mitosis.

Each mitotic chromosome consists of two sister

chromatids (corresponding to the two copies of
the replicated DNA) that are held together at a
waist-like constriction called the centromere.

The portions of the chromosomes that are not

in the centromere itself are called
chromosome “arms” (Fig. 7.2).
Key Terms

 Centromere: The chromosomal locus that regulates the

movements of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis.
 The centromere is defined by specific DNA sequences plus
proteins that bind to them, although epigenetic factors also play a
key role.
 In higher eukaryotes, the centromere of mitotic chromosomes
can be visualized as a constricted region where sister chromatids
are held together most closely.
 Chromatin: DNA plus the proteins that package it within the cell
nucleus.

 Chromosome: A DNA molecule with its attendant proteins that

moves as an independent unit during mitosis and meiosis.
 Before DNA replication, each chromosome consists of a single
DNA molecule plus proteins and is called a chromatid.
 After replication, each chromosome consists of two identical DNA
molecules plus proteins.
 These are called sister chromatids.
 Chromosomal DNA molecules are usually linear but can be
circular in organelles, bacteria, and viruses.
 Kinetochore: The centromeric substructure that binds
microtubules and directs the movements of chromosomes in
mitosis.
 Telomere: The specialized structure at either end of the
chromosomal DNA molecule that ensures the complete
replication of the chromosomal ends and protects the ends
within the cell.
As a result, the modern budding yeast genome contains approximately
6692 predicted genes.

Remarkably, only about 1000 of these genes are indispensable for life.

Approximately 5% of yeast genes are segmented, containing regions

that appear in mature RNA molecules (exons) and regions that are
removed by splicing (introns).

Exons occupy approximately 75% of the budding yeast genome, with

the remainder in regulatory regions, repeated DNAs, and introns.