THE CELL NUCLEUS

1. General data:
The cell nucleus is a double-membrane organelle which stores the
hereditary information of the eukaryotic cell. It determines the
structure and the functions of every cell.
The cell nucleus was discovered in plant cells by the British
botanist Robert Brown in 1831. Most cells have one nucleus,
there are cells with two nuclei (liver cells) and cells with many
nuclei (skeletal muscle cells, algae). Some cells, like erythrocytes
and thrombocytes, have no nucleus and have a short lifespan.
Binucleated cell Erythrocytes
and thrombocytes

Skeletal muscle cell

2. Location, shape and size of the nucleus:
In most cells it is centrally located and in some-periphery located
(skeletal muscle cells). Its shape depends on the type of the cell
and it can be oval, ellipsoid, bean-like, spindle-like, etc.

3. Structure of the nucleus:

3.1 The nuclear envelope / ядрена обвивка/: It consists of two
membranes – outer (with attached ribosomes that
synthesize proteins) and inner membranes. At certain places
the outer nuclear membrane connects with the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear pores are formed at the
sites of fusion of the outer and the inner membrane.
Through them active two-way transport between the
 cytoplasm and the nucleus take place. For instance, proteins
that are produced in the cytosol and enter the nucleus,
while RNA molecules and ribosomal subunits leave it.
3.2 Chromatin /хроматин/ – stores the hereditary information
in the nucleus. It’s a supramolecular complex composed of
DNA and nuclear proteins. This makes it possible for the very
long DNA molecules to be packed within the nucleus and
thus be protected from damage.
3.3 The nucleolus /ядърце/ – it’s a compact spherical structure
that consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins, not separated
by a membrane.
3.4 The nuclear sap /ядрено вещество/ – takes up the space
between the nucleolus and the chromatin. It is composed of
water, ions and small protein molecules.
4. Functions of the cell nucleus: Synthesis of DNA and RNA. Through
the synthesis of DNA the hereditary program is passed on
unchanged to the daughter cells and the offspring, while through
the synthesis of the three types of RNA, specific proteins are
produced.
5. Chromosomes:
5.1 General data: At the onset of cell division the chromatin
fibres spiralize, shorten and thicken and turn into
chromosomes. This process includes a few stages and occurs
with the help of nuclear proteins. Chromosomes are
supramolecular complexes of DNA and proteins, typical of
eukaryotic cells only. They are the end-stage packaging of
DNA molecules and that is why they are functionally
inactive.
5.2 Structure of chromosomes
Each chromosome consists of two chromatids. They result
from the doubling of DNA prior to the cell division. This is
why each chromatid contains one DNA molecule that is fully
identical to the DNA of the other chromatid. The two
chromatids are held together at a place called centromere.
With its help the chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle.
At the site of the centromere is located the primary
constriction that divides the chromosome into arms. Ten of
the 46 human chromosomes have a secondary constriction.
At the end of two of their arms a region called satellite is
formed.

5.3 Chromosome set (Karyotype)

 Chromosomes in the cells of different species vary in
number (from 1 to 1200), size and location of the
centromeres. The chromosome set (karyotype) is the
number, size and structure of chromosomes in eukaryotic
cells. To be seen under the microscope, chromosomes first
have to be stained with special dyes. Changes in
chromosome number cause various genetic diseases.

Normal human karyotype Down’s syndrome karyotype

5.4 Types of chromosome sets:

 Diploid set (2n) – contains two copies of each
chromosome (a pair of homologous chromosomes) –
one from the father and the other from the mother.
 Haploid set (n) – each homologous pair is presented by
one chromosome only. It is typical of sex cells and
spores of plants.