‫االسم‪ :‬مرتضى ميثاق ناصر كاظم‬

‫جامعه ميسان كليه طب اسنان‬

‫مرحله اولى‬
‫بحث بعنوان ‪cell nucleus‬‬
‫اشراف االستاذه م‪.‬م هبه عبد الحسين‬
The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound
structure that contains a cell's hereditary
information and controls its growth and
reproduction. It is the command center of a
eukaryotic cell and is usually the most notable
cell organelle in both size and
functionFunction
The key function of the nucleus is to control
cell growth and multiplication. This involves
regulating gene expression, initiating cellular
reproduction, and storing genetic material
necessary for all of these tasks. In order for a
nucleus to carry out important reproductive
roles and other cell activities, it needs proteins
and ribosomes.
Protein and Ribosome Synthesis
The nucleus regulates the synthesis
of proteins in the cytoplasm through the use of
messenger RNA (mRNA). Messenger RNA is a
transcribed DNA segment that serves as a
template for protein production. It is produced
in the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm
through the nuclear pores of the nuclear
envelope, which you'll read about below. Once
in the cytoplasm, ribosomes and another RNA
molecule called transfer RNA work together to
translate mRNA in order to produce proteins.
Physical Characteristics
The shape of a nucleus varies from cell to cell
but is often depicted as spherical. To
understand more about the role of the nucleus,
read about the structure and function of each
of its parts.
Nuclear Envelope and Nuclear Pores
The cell nucleus is bound by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope. This
membrane separates the contents of the
nucleus from the cytoplasm, the gel-like
substance containing all other organelles. The
nuclear envelope consists
of phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer
much like that of the cell membrane. This lipid
bilayer has nuclear pores that allow
substances to enter and exit the nucleus, or
transfer from the cytoplasm to the
nucleoplasm.
The nuclear envelope helps to maintain the
shape of the nucleus. It is connected to
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in such a
way that the internal chamber of the nuclear
envelope is continuous with the lumen, or
inside, of the ER. This also allows the transfer
of materials as well.
Chromatin
The nucleus houses chromosomes containing
DNA. DNA holds heredity information and
instructions for cell growth, development, and
reproduction. When a cell is "resting", or not
dividing, its chromosomes are organized into
long entangled structures called chromatin.
Nucleoplasm
Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance
within the nuclear envelope. Also called
karyoplasm, this semi-aqueous material is
similar to cytoplasm in that it is composed
mainly of water with dissolved salts, enzymes,
and organic molecules suspended within. The
nucleolus and chromosomes are surrounded
by nucleoplasm, which cushions and protects
nuclear contents.
Like the nuclear envelope, the nucleoplasm
supports the nucleus to hold its shape. It also
provides a medium by which materials, such
as enzymes and nucleotides (DNA and RNA
subunits), can be transported throughout the
nucleus to its various parts.
Nucleolus
Contained within the nucleus is a
dense, membrane-less structure composed of
RNA and proteins called the nucleolus. The
nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers, the
parts of chromosomes carrying the genes for
ribosome synthesis. The nucleolus helps to
synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and
assembling ribosomal RNA subunits. These
subunits join together to form ribosomes
during protein synthesis
Nucleus
The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle
that serves as the information processing and
administrative center of the cell. This organelle
has two major functions: it stores the cell's
hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates
the cell's activities, which include growth,
intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis,
and reproduction (cell division).
Only the cells of advanced organisms, known
as eukaryotes, have a nucleus. Generally
there is only one nucleus per cell, but there
are exceptions, such as the cells of slime
molds and the Siphonales group of algae.
Simpler one-celled organisms (prokaryotes),
like the bacteria and cyanobacteria, don't have
a nucleus. In these organisms, all of the cell's
information and administrative functions are
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm.
The spherical nucleus typically occupies about
10 percent of a eukaryotic cell's volume,
making it one of the cell's most prominent
features. A double-layered membrane, the
nuclear envelope, separates the contents of
the nucleus from the cellular cytoplasm. The
envelope is riddled with holes called nuclear
pores that allow specific types and sizes of
molecules to pass back and forth between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm. It is also attached
to a network of tubules and sacs, called the
endoplasmic reticulum, where protein
synthesis occurs, and is usually studded with
ribosomes (see Figure 1).
The semifluid matrix found inside the nucleus
is called nucleoplasm. Within the nucleoplasm,
most of the nuclear material consists of
chromatin, the less condensed form of the
cell's DNA that organizes to form
chromosomes during mitosis or cell division.
The nucleus also contains one or more
nucleoli, organelles that synthesize protein-
producing macromolecular assemblies called
ribosomes, and a variety of other smaller
components, such as Cajal
bodies, GEMS (Gemini of coiled bodies), and
interchromatin granule clusters.
Chromatin and Chromosomes - Packed
inside the nucleus of every human cell is
nearly 6 feet of DNA, which is divided into 46
individual molecules, one for each
chromosome and each about 1.5 inches long.
Packing all this material into a microscopic cell
nucleus is an extraordinary feat of packaging.
For DNA to function, it can't be crammed into
the nucleus like a ball of string. Instead, it is
combined with proteins and organized into a
precise, compact structure, a dense string-like
fiber called chromatin.
The Nucleolus - The nucleolus is a
membrane-less organelle within the nucleus
that manufactures ribosomes, the cell's
protein-producing structures. Through the
microscope, the nucleolus looks like a large
dark spot within the nucleus. A nucleus may
contain up to four nucleoli, but within each
species the number of nucleoli is fixed. After a
cell divides, a nucleolus is formed when
chromosomes are brought together into
nucleolar organizing regions. During cell
division, the nucleolus disappears. Some
studies suggest that the nucleolus may be
involved with cellular aging and, therefore,
may affect the senescence of an organism.
The Nuclear Envelope - The nuclear
envelope is a double-layered membrane that
encloses the contents of the nucleus during
most of the cell's lifecycle. The space between
the layers is called the perinuclear space and
appears to connect with the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. The envelope is
perforated with tiny holes called nuclear pores.
These pores regulate the passage of
molecules between the nucleus and
cytoplasm, permitting some to pass through
the membrane, but not others. The inner
surface has a protein lining called the nuclear
lamina, which binds to chromatin and other
nuclear components. During mitosis, or cell
division, the nuclear envelope disintegrates,
but reforms as the two cells complete their
formation and the chromatin begins to unravel
and disperse.
Nuclear Pores - The nuclear envelope is
perforated with holes called nuclear pores.
These pores regulate the passage of
molecules between the nucleus and
cytoplasm, permitting some to pass through
the membrane, but not others. Building blocks
for building DNA and RNA are allowed into the
nucleus as well as molecules that provide the
energy for constructing genetic material.