Anatomy & Physiology: Seeley's

Seeley’s
ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
Twelfth Edition
VANPUTTE, REGAN,
RUSSO
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 03
Cell Biology
Lecture Outline
3-2
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education
A Human Cell
3-3
3.1 Functions of the Cell
Structure:
• Plasma (cell) membrane – outer boundary.
• Nucleus – directs cell activities.
• Cytoplasm – located between plasma membrane and
nucleus; contains organelles.
Functions:
1. Cell metabolism and energy use.
2. Synthesis of molecules.
3. Communication - cells produce and receive electrical and
chemical signals.
4. Reproduction and inheritance - each cell contains DNA;
some cells are specialized to gametes for exchange during
sexual intercourse.
3-4
3.2 How We See Cells
Cells are too small to be seen with the unaided eye.
• Must use microscopes.
Light microscope – up to 1000x.
• Examine tissues (For example, biopsies) and cells.
• Requires stains.
Electron microscope.
• Scanning microscope (SEM).
• Three-dimensional surface features.
• Transmission microscope (TEM).
• View internal structures.
Atomic force microscope (AFM).
• Tiny probe scans sample.
• Very high resolution.
• Reveals surface topography.
3-5
Microscopic Images of Nuclear
Pores
(a) ©National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, The Florida State University; (b) Courtesy of Werner Franke and Ulrich Scheer; (c) Courtesy of Dr.
Martin W. Goldberg; (d) ©Shahin, Schillers & Oberleithner, Institute of Physiology II, Medical Faculty, University of Muenster, Germany
3-6
3.3 Plasma Membrane
Separation of intracellular versus extracellular materials.
Production of charge difference (membrane potential) across the membrane by regulation
of intracellular and extracellular ion concentrations.
• Outside of membrane positively charged compared to inside because of gathering ions along
outside and inside.
Glycocalyx: combinations of carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) and proteins
(glycoproteins) on outer surface.
Fluid-mosaic model.
3-7
3.4 Membrane Lipids
Phospholipids and cholesterol predominate.
• Phospholipids: bilayer. Polar heads facing water in the interior and exterior
of the cell (hydrophilic); nonpolar tails facing each other on the interior of
the membrane (hydrophobic).
• Cholesterol: interspersed among phospholipids. Amount determines fluid
nature of the membrane.
Fluid nature
provides/allows.
• Distribution of molecules
within the membrane.
• Phospholipids automatically
reassembled if membrane
is damaged.
• Membranes can fuse with
each other.
3-8
3.5 Membrane Proteins
Integral membrane proteins.
• Extend deeply into membrane, often extending from one
surface to the other.
• Can form channels through the membrane.
Peripheral membrane proteins.
• Attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer
surfaces of the lipid bilayer.
Functioning depends on 3-D shape and chemical
characteristics.
• Markers, attachment sites, channels, receptors, enzymes,
or carriers.
3-9
Marker Molecules
Glycoproteins or
glycolipids.
Allow cells to identify
one another or other
molecules.
• Immunity.
• Recognition of oocyte
by sperm cell.
• Intercellular
communication.
3-10
Attachment Proteins
Cadherins – attach cells
to other cells.
Integrins – integral
proteins that attach to
extracellular molecule.
• Sometimes allow
communication due to
contact with intracellular
molecules.
3-11
Transport Proteins
Hydrophilic region faces
inward; charge
determines molecules
that can pass through.
Includes channel
proteins, carrier proteins,
and ATP-powered
pumps.
3-12
Transport Proteins: Specificity and
Competition
Involve carrier proteins or
channels in the cell
membrane.
Characteristics.
• Specificity for a single type
of molecule.
• Competition among
molecules of similar shape.
• Saturation: rate of
transport limited to number
of available carrier proteins.
3-13
Saturation of a Transport Protein
3-14
Channel Proteins
Channel proteins – integral membrane proteins that
form tiny channel through membrane.
Leak ion channels: always open.
• Responsible for the permeability of the plasma membrane to
ions when the plasma membrane is at rest.
Gated ion channels can be opened or closed by certain
stimuli.
• Ligand-gated ion channel: open in response to small
molecules that bind to proteins or glycoproteins.
• Voltage-gated ion channel: open when there is a change in
charge across the plasma membrane.
3-15
Leak and Gated Membrane Channels
3-16
Carrier Proteins 1
Also called transporters.

Integral proteins move
ions from one side of
membrane to the other.
• Have specific binding
sites.
• Protein changes shape to
transport ions or
molecules.
• Resumes original shape
after transport. 3-17
Carrier Proteins 2
Carrier proteins come in several forms.

• Uniporters – moves one ion/molecule.
• Symporters – move two ions/molecules in the same
direction at the same time.
• Antiporters – move two ions/molecules in opposite
directions at the same time.
3-18
ATP-Powered Pumps
Require ATP.
The use of energy
allows the cell to
accumulate substances.
Rate of transport
depends on
concentration of
substrate and on
concentration of ATP.
3-19
Receptor Proteins
Proteins or glycoproteins in membranes with an
exposed receptor site.
Can attach to specific chemical signal molecules
and act as an intercellular communication
system.
Ligand can attach only to cells with that specific
receptor.
3-20
Receptors Linked to Channel Proteins
Receptor molecules linked to
channel proteins.
Attachment of receptor-specific
chemical signals (for example,
acetylcholine) to receptors causes
change in shape of channel protein.
Channel opens or closes.
Changes permeability of cell to some
substances.
• Cystic fibrosis: defect in genes causes
defect(s) in channel proteins.
• Drugs used to alter membrane
permeability through attachment to
channel protein-linked receptors.
3-21
Receptors Linked to
G Protein Complexes
Alter activity on inner
surface of plasma
membrane.
Leads to intracellular
chemical signals that
affect cell function.
Some hormones
function in this way.
3-22
Enzymes
Enzymes: some act to
catalyze reactions at
outer/inner surface of
plasma membrane.
Example: Surface cells
of small intestine
produce enzymes that
digest dipeptides.
3-23
3.6 Movement through the Plasma
Membrane
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.
• Only allows certain substances to pass through it.
Passive membrane transport.
• Diffusion.
• Osmosis.
• Facilitated diffusion.
Active membrane transport.
• Active transport.
• Secondary active transport.
Vesicular transport.
• Endocytosis.
• Exocytosis.
3-24
Diffusion
Movement of solutes from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration in solution.
• Concentration gradient: concentration difference between
two points.
• Viscosity: measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
3-25
Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane
3-26
Osmosis 1
Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively

permeable membrane. Water moves from an
area of low concentration of solute to an area of
high concentration of solute.
• Aquaporins – water channels.
Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent

water from moving across a membrane by
osmosis.
3-27
Osmosis 2
Comparative terms used to describe osmotic

pressures of solutions.
• Isosmotic: solutions with the same concentrations
of solute particles.
• Solution with a greater concentration of solute is
hyperosmotic.
• Solution with a lesser concentration of solute is
hyposmotic.
3-28
Osmosis 3
3-29
Osmosis and Cells
Important because large volume changes caused
by water movement disrupt normal cell function.
Cell shrinkage or swelling.
• Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells.
• Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation).
• Hypotonic: cell swells (lysis).
3-30
Effects of Hypotonic, Isotonic, and
Hypertonic Solutions on Red Blood Cells
3-31
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education ©David M. Phillips/Science Source
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion: mediated transport process carried
out by carrier/channel proteins; no ATP required.
• Move large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged
molecules across the plasma membrane.
• Amino acids and glucose in, manufactured proteins out.
3-32
Active Membrane Transport: Active
Transport
Active transport.
• Requires ATP.
• Substances can be moved against their concentration
gradients (that is, from low to high), allowing the
substance to accumulate on one side of the plasma
membrane.
• Rate of transport depends on concentration of
substrate and on concentration of ATP.
• Example: sodium-potassium (Na+/K+) pump that
creates electrical potentials across membranes.
3-33
Active Transport: Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) bind to the sodium–potassium
(Na+–K+) pump.
2. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) bind to the sodium–potassium
(Na+–K+) pump.
3. The Na+–K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are
transported across the membrane and into the
extra cellular fluid.
4. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+–K+ pump.
5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the
Na+–K+ pump.
6. The Na+–K+ pump changes shape, transporting K+
across the membrane and into the cytoplasm. The
Na+–K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.
3-34
Secondary Active Transport
Use of potential energy in
concentration gradient of
one substance (established
by primary active
transport) to help move
another substance.
• Active transport of an ion
(such as sodium) out of a
cell establishes
concentration gradient.
• Movement of ions back into
the cell provides the energy
to move a different
ion/molecule into the cell.
3-35
Vesicular Transport
Movement of substances by
formation or release of a
vesicle.
Requires ATP.
Types:
• Endocytosis: movement into
cell.
• Phagocytosis: solid particle
is ingested and larege vesicle
is formed.
• Pinocytosis: dissolved
molecules ingested and
small vesicles are formed.
• Exocytosis: movement out of
cell.
3-36
Pinocytosis
3-37
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
3-38
Exocytosis
3-39
3.7 Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm: cellular material outside nucleus but
inside plasma membrane.
Composed of cytosol, cytoskeleton, cytoplasmic
inclusions, organelles.
Cytosol is the fluid portion.
• Dissolved molecules (ions in water) and colloid
(proteins in water).
3-40
Cytoskeleton
Supports the cell but allows for
movements like changes in cell
shape and movements of cilia.
• Microtubules: hollow tubes
made of tubulin protein.
• Internal scaffold, transport, cell
division.
• Actin filaments (microfilaments).
• Structure, support for microvilli,
contractility, movement.
• Intermediate filaments:
mechanical strength.
Cytoplasmic inclusions:
aggregates of chemicals such as
lipid droplets, melanin.
3-41
3.8 The Nucleus and Cytoplasmic
Organelles
Organelles: small specialized structures with
particular functions.
Most have membranes that separate interior of
organelles from cytoplasm.
Related to specific structure and function of the
cell.
3-42
The Nucleus
Membrane-bound structure containing DNA.
Consists of nucleoplasm surrounded by nuclear envelope.
• Nuclear pores regulate movement into/out of nucleus.
DNA contained in nucleus specifies the structure of
proteins.
RNA serves as an intermediate during protein synthesis.
• mRNA.
• rRNA.
• tRNA.
Nucleolus: dense region(s) within the nucleus where
ribosomes are manufactured.
3-43
Nucleus
3-44
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education (b) ©Don Fawcett/Science Source; (c) ©Bernard Gilula/ Science Source
Chromosome Structure
DNA is found in nucleus,
associated with proteins
(For example, histones)
to form chromosomes.
During much of cell cycle,
chromosomes are
dispersed as chromatin.
During cell division,
chromatin condenses into
compact chromosomes.
3-45
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis.
Composed of a large and a small subunit.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) + proteins.
Types.
• Free.
• Attached (to endoplasmic reticulum).
3-46
Production of Ribosomes
1. Ribosomal proteins, produced in
the cytoplasm, are transported
through nuclear pores into the
nucleolus.
2. rRNA, most of which is produced
in the nucleolus, is assembled with
ribosomal proteins to form small
and large ribosomal subunits.
3. The small and large ribosomal
subunits leave the nucleolus and
the nucleus through nuclear pores.
4. The small and large subunits, now
in the cytoplasm, combine with
each other and with mRNA during
protein synthesis.
3-47
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Organelle consisting of a
network of membranes.
Continuous with outer
membrane of nuclear envelope.
Contains cisternae.
Rough ER: has attached
ribosomes; where proteins are
produced and modified.
Smooth ER: no attached
ribosomes; manufactures lipids.
3-48
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education (b) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
Golgi Apparatus
Flattened membrane sacs
stacked on each other.
Modification, packaging,
distribution of proteins
and lipids for secretion or
internal use.
Substances packaged into
transport vesicles.
3-49
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Function of the Golgi Apparatus
3-50
Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, and
Proteasomes
Lysosomes.
• Form at Golgi.
• Contain hydrolytic enzymes that function in digesting cellular
material.
• Material ingested by cell.
• Organelles no longer functional (autophagy).
Peroxisomes.
• Smaller than lysosomes.
• Contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and amino acids.
• Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of breakdown.
Proteasomes.
• Consist of large protein complexes.
• Include several enzymes that break down and recycle proteins in cell.
3-51
Action of Lysosomes
1. A vesicle forms around
material outside the cell.
2. The vesicle is pinched off from
the plasma membrane and
becomes a separate vesicle
inside the cell.
3. A lysosome is pinched off the
Golgi apparatus.
4. The lysosome fuses with the
vesicle.
5. The enzymes from the
lysosome mix with the
material in the vesicle, and
the enzymes digest the
material.
3-52
Mitochondria
Major site of ATP synthesis.
Membranes:
• Cristae: Infoldings of inner membrane.
• Matrix: Substance located in space formed by inner membrane.
Mitochondria increase in number when cell energy requirements
increase.
Mitochondria contain DNA that codes for some of the proteins
needed for mitochondria production.
3-53
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education ©EM Research Services, Newcastle University
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers
Centrioles located in centrosome, a specialized zone near nucleus.
Center of microtubule formation.
Before cell division, centrioles divide, move to ends of cell and
organize microtubules called spindle fibers.
3-54
Cilia and Flagella
Appendages projecting from cell surfaces.
Capable of movement.
Cilia move materials over the surface of cells.
• For example, mucus in respiratory tract.
Flagella used for movement by sperm cells.
3-55
Structure of Cilia and Flagella
3-56
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education (b) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (c) ©Don W.
Microvilli
Extension of plasma membrane that increase surface area.
Normally many on each cell.
One-tenth to one-twentieth the size of cilia.
Do not move.
3-57
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
3.9 Genes and Gene Expression
1. DNA contains the information
necessary to produce proteins.
2. Transcription of one DNA strand
results in mRNA, which is a
complementary copy of the
information in the DNA strand
needed to make a protein.
3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and
goes to a ribosome.
4. Amino acids, the building blocks of
proteins, are carried to the
ribosome by tRNAs.
5. In the process of translation, the
information contained in mRNA is
used to determine the number,
kinds, and arrangement of amino
acids in the polypeptide chain.
3-58
Transcription
The strands of DNA are separated.
RNA polymerase binds at a
promoter region.
RNA polymerase catalyzes the
formation of a mRNA chain using
the DNA as a template and
following the rules of
complimentary base pairing.
• A with U.
• C with G.
Transcription ends at a terminator
sequence.
3-59
Posttranscriptional Change In mRNA
3-60
Translation
Process that occurs on ribosomes.
Turns mRNA into a polypeptide.
Involves rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA.
tRNA anticodons match with mRNA codons, and the rRNA
catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the
amino acids at the opposite end of the tRNA.
3-61
Translation of mRNA to Produce a Protein
3-62
Regulation of Gene Expression
All nucleated cells except germ cells have the full
complement of DNA.
During development, differentiation occurs and some
segments of DNA are turned off in some cells while
those segments remain “on” in other cells.
During the lifetime of a cell, the rate of protein
synthesis varies depending upon chemical signals that
reach the cell.
• Example: thyroxine from the thyroid causes cells to increase
their metabolic rate. More thyroxine, higher metabolic rate;
less thyroxine, lower metabolic rate.
3-63
3.10 Cell Cycle
Interphase: phase between
cell divisions.
• Replication of DNA.
• Ongoing normal cell activities.
Mitosis: series of events that
leads to the production of two
cells by division of a mother
cell into two daughter cells.
Cells are genetically identical.
• Prophase.
• Metaphase.
• Anaphase.
• Telophase.
Cytokinesis: division of cell
cytoplasm.
3-64
DNA Replication
Copy DNA in preparation for mitosis
DNA strands separate.
The old strands become the templates for the new
(complementary) strands to form.
Two identical DNA molecules are formed by
semiconservative replication.
• DNA synthesis catalyzed by DNA polymerase.
• Leading versus lagging strands.
• DNA ligase splices Okazaki fragments.
All cells (except sex cells) have diploid number of
chromosomes.
• Sex cells have haploid number.
3-65
Replication of DNA
1. The strands of the DNA molecule
separate from each other.
2. Each old strand (dark purple)
functions as a template on which
a new, complementary strand
(light purple) is formed. The base-
pairing relationship between
nucleotides determines the
sequence of nucleotides in the
newly formed strands.
3. Two identical DNA molecules are
produced.
3-66
Cell Division
Interphase – DNA replication occurs.
Phases of mitosis:
• Prophase – nuclear envelope disintegrates, chromatin
condenses, spindles attach to kinetochore.
• Metaphase – chromosomes are aligned at the nuclear equator.
• Anaphase – spindles separate the chromatids, cytokinesis
begins.
• Telophase – chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope
reforms, cytokinesis continues.
Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division, separate process from
mitosis.
3-67
Structure of a Mitotic
Chromosome
1. The DNA of a chromosome is dispersed
as chromatin.
2. The DNA molecule unwinds, and each
strand of the molecule is replicated.
3. During mitosis, the chromatin from each
replicated DNA strand condenses to
form a chromatid. The chromatids are
joined at the centromere to form a single
chromosome.
4. The chromatids separate to form two
new, identical chromosomes. The
chromosomes will unwind to form
chromatin in the nuclei of the two
daughter cells.
3-68
Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis 1
3-69
Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis 2
3-70
3.11 Cellular Aspects of Aging
Several hypotheses regarding how aging occurs:
• Cellular clock.
• Death genes.
• DNA damage.
• Free radials.
• Mitochondrial damage.
3-71

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Seeley’s

Also called transporters.

Carrier proteins come in several forms.

Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively

Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent

Comparative terms used to describe osmotic

Flagella used for movement by sperm cells.

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