ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY

Assoc. Prof. Pınar Gedikkaya Bal

GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGANISMS (GMOs)
◦ Continuous breeding studies are carried out and new species are cultivated in order to increase yield in
agricultural crops, highlight some commercial features, and provide resistance to diseases, parasites or
changing conditions.

◦ On the other hand, new methods and new pesticides are being developed to combat pests and weeds.

◦ But this is an endless struggle ... Because, after a while, new diseases and parasites appear in these new
species, and pests develop resistance to drugs. For this reason, new species and drugs are constantly
being developed.
SEED BREEDING and HYBRIDS
◦ In addition to traditional methods such as introduction (introduction of new species), selection (pollen
control), crossbreeding (sterilization, artificial insemination), a wide variety of methods are used to
develop new species, ranging from exposure to radiation and chemicals to create mutations.

◦ Hybrid seeds emerge by crossing two different species. During mutation, a gene, for example, is
inactivated and the unwanted trait can be removed by exposure to chemicals or radiation.

◦ However, other genes can be affected during the mutation and therefore some desirable traits may be
lost. These are later attempted to be added by crossbreeding. In addition, unwanted mutations may occur,
and it may be possible for them to create undesirable features such as toxic in the new plant.
Direct gene transfer
◦ The method of using genes from wild relatives in direct gene transfer using biotechnology is called cis-
genesis.

◦ Since only the desired gene is added in this method, it is thought that unwanted mutations are not created
and it may even be safer than traditional breeding methods.

◦ Although it is advocated to facilitate the authorization processes of such GMOs, the debates continue...
◦ In some experiments, it has been shown that such GMOs can develop different properties than those that are
improved with the traditional method.
Direct gene transfer
◦ With the developing biotechnologies, gene transfer can be made between different species, for example; from fish or
bacteria to plant.

◦ Gene transfer from different organisms or species is called trans-genesis.

◦ Gene transfer in this way is not possible with traditional breeding methods.

◦ Since direct gene transfer can be done much faster than the traditional method, it is possible to develop species
which are resistant to suddenly changing conditions or rapidly spreading diseases.

◦ Direct gene transfer gains importance in the face of the rapid change in agricultural conditions emerging with the
change of global climate ...
Approval of GMOs
◦ New GMOs are evaluated on the possible effects of new proteins created by new genes, and whether
these new genes change plant metabolism.

◦ The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has made the assessment that GMOs produced in
large quantities for years did not cause significant problems. FAO has published a guideline in 2003 that
»if there is no significant difference from its normal relative» a new type of GMO can be approved.

◦ However, the increasingly widespread opinion among scientists is that this assessment is not enough for
GMOs ... More tests are needed ...
GMOs IN WORLD MARKETS
◦ In 2009, at least one tenth of the agricultural lands in the world were allocated to GMOs and most of the corn, soy, canola
and cotton produced by the largest exporters are now GMOs.

◦ Presently, it has become imposibble for GMOs not to interfere/mix with the rest of the other products (during transportation,
storage, production or packaging) Therefore, what we buy from the world market, probably include GMOs.

◦ For this reason, a limit is placed on the definition of non-GMO and generally, the rate of nine per thousand is used as a
globally accepted standard.

◦ Many countries, especially the USA and China, invest in biotechnology and develop and plant GMO seeds. While this work
is done by the state in China, it is undertaken by private companies and foundations in Western countries. Biotechnology
investments are increasing rapidly in developing countries as well as in developed countries. If safety standards are not
strengthened and legal processes are not tightened, risks for human health and the environment may increase.
ADVANTAGES OF GMOs

◦ Until the present day, most of the insect and weed resistant grain and cotton types have been cultivated in
the World.

◦ However, with the insects and weeds gaining resistance, the success of GMOs is doomed to be
temporary.
ADVANTAGES OF GMOs
◦ Farming becomes possible in unfavourable environments
◦ Increase the nutritional value of foods
◦ Remove allergens and toxic elements from foods
◦ Add drugs (insulin) or vaccines (hepatitis) to the product
◦ To produce soluble plastic in nature becomes possible
◦ Avoid erosion, as some types of GMOs require less plowing of the soil
◦ Promise to provide detoxification from the soil
◦ Reduce food that are thrown away due to infestation, disease or spoilage, which accounts for almost 40% of global production each year
◦ It can contribute to the production of fuel or animal feed from waste
◦ GMOs have strategic importance in the face of major disasters, as they can develop new species faster than traditional methods in the face of
sudden changing conditions.
◦ GMOs support production of fuel from grain.
◦ GMOs do not require the use of fertilizers and other pesticides and prevents this type of pollution.
◦ GMOs support the fight against hunger
ADVANTAGES OF GMOs
◦ Today, agriculture is carried out beyond the limits of sustainability in significant parts of the world.

◦ The accumulated groundwater is consumed, excessive fertilizers are used, the soil becomes arid and
infertile, forests are cut and livestock are carried out, and fishing is done by eradicating valuable species.

◦ Moreover, approximately 40% of the agricultural products produced are thrown away.

◦ While it is getting harder for the world to feed itself, we do not have the luxury to ignore the potential
offered by biotechnology. GMOs can also be a solution to global problems such as hunger and climate
change.
Disadvantages of GMOs
◦ GMOs pose significant risks for the environment.

◦ On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that some of these risks are also found in traditional
agriculture, and agriculture is one of the human activities that causes the greatest damage to nature.

◦ The success of GMOs can be short-lived (species created for the control of pests and weeds may
encounter resistance after a while)

◦ As biotechnology spreads around the world, and new species are created in countries where controls are
weak, unexpected new impacts on human health and the ecological system may occur.
Disadvantages of GMOs
◦ Gene jump (leaping to local species and disrupting their genetic makeup, or growing superweeds with
genes that jump to other weeds)

◦ GMO seeds are patented. They have to be bought again and again every year. The oligopoly of the major
GMO producer companies in the world food market creates question marks for the future.

◦ Resistance to drugs used in GMO fields can develop in insects or weeds. In addition, it is discussed that
these drugs may cause some new diseases in humans and animals. It is claimed that insect-resistant
GMOs can harm bees, butterflies or birds as well as harmful insects.
Disadvantages of GMOs
◦ It is claimed that the toxins produced by insect-resistant GMO species created by adding the bacteria
gene both reach the soil from the roots of the plant and mix into the soil with plant parts remaining in the
soil after the harvest and poison the soil.

◦ While GMOs destroy harmful species, they cause the formation of insects that damage other species, but
not themselves.
OPPOSITION TO GMOs IN THE
WORLD
◦ Environmentalist non-governmental organizations (Greenpeace and WWF) oppose GMOs.

◦ However, some states produce or support the production of GMOs.

◦ There are also lobbies defending GMOs.

◦ As a result, biotechnology investments will continue in these countries ... However, legal regulations and
control mechanisms that will control this sector should be put into effect quickly ... On the other hand,
research on its effects should also continue ...
◦ Technological developments alone cannot solve the food problem in the world… more holistic
approaches are required…

◦ In the first place, it is necessary to establish sustainable agricultural policies such as controlling
population growth, preventing waste, improving soil fertility as well as improving biotechnology,
shifting agricultural lands reserved for biofuels to food production, preventing soil loss, and increasing
efficiency in irrigation.