Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Background
concepts
Meteorology
chapter 3 of text
CCE 524
January 2011
Introduction
Orographic rainfall
Air Pollutant Cycle
Transport
Emission Diffusion or
concentration
Deposition onto
vegetation, livestock,
soil, water, or escape into
space
Transport
Pollutants moved from source
May undergo physical and chemical
changes
Smog – interaction of NOx, HC, and solar
energy
Ozone formation
Concentration & Dispersion
Disperse based on meteorological & topographic conditions
Concentration --- usually stagnant conditions
Dispersion
Topological conditions
Affected by presence of large buildings
Meteorological conditions
prevailing wind speed & direction
Pollutants disperse over geographic area
Any location receives pollutants from different sources in
different amounts
Need to understand how pollutants disperse to predict
concentrations and predict violations at a particular location
Prediction
Mathematical models of local atmosphere
determine transport and dispersion patterns
With emission data – predict concentrations
throughout region
Should correlate with data from monitoring
locations
Effect of sources can be estimated &
regulations set
Dispersion
General mean air motion
Turbulent velocity fluctuations
Diffusion due to concentration gradients –
from plumes
Aerodynamic characteristics of pollution
particles
Size
Shape
Weight
Atmosphere
Gas composition (changes very little with time
or place in most of atmosphere
78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
1% argon & other trace gases
Moisture content
Water vapor
Water droplets
Ice crystals
Atmosphere
Relative humidity (RH): ratio of water
content to air
Increases with increasing temperatures
Atmosphere
Has well-defined lower boundary with water
& land
Upper boundary becomes increasingly thinner
50% of atmospheric mass is within 3.4 miles
of earth
99% is within 20 miles of earth
Large width & small depth
Most motion is horizontal
Vertical motion ~ 1 to 2x less than horizontal
Solar Radiation
At upper boundary of atmosphere, vertical solar
radiation = 8.16 J/cm2min (solar constant)
Maximum intensity at λ = 0.4 to 0.8 μm = visible
portion of electromagnetic spectrum
~ 42% of energy
Absorbed by higher atmosphere
Reflected by clouds
Back-scattered by atmosphere
Reflected by earth’s surface
Absorbed by water vapor & clouds
47% adsorbed by land and water
Insolation
Quantity of solar radiation reaching a
unit area of the earth’s surface
Angle of incidence
Thickness of the atmosphere
Characteristics of surface
Albedo: fraction of incident radiation
that is reflected by a surface
Solar Incidence Angle
angle between sun’s
rays and an imaginary
line perpendicular to the
surface (0º)
maximum solar gain is
achieved when incidence
angle is 0º
Tangent in morning and
approximately
perpendicular
angle depends on surface
Information and image source: http://www.visualsunchart.com/VisualSunChart/SolarAccessConcepts/
Wind Circulation
Sun, earth, and atmosphere form dynamic system
Differential heating of gases leads to horizontal
pressure gradients horizontal movement
Large scale movement
Poles
Equator
Continents
oceans
Small scale movement
Lakes
Different surfaces
Wind Circulation
Average over a year, solar heat flow to the
earth’s surface at equator is 2.4x that at poles
Air moves in response to differences
Heat transports from equator to poles
Like air circulation from a heater in a room
Without rotation
Air flows directly from high to low pressure
areas (fp)
Wind Circulation
Average over a year, solar heat flow to the
earth’s surface at equator is 2.4x that at poles
Air moves in response to differences
Heat transports from equator to poles
Rises from equator, sinks at poles
Equator to pole at high altitudes
Pole to equator at low altitudes
Like air circulation from a heater in a room
Wind Circulation
Rising
Boundaries
Wind Circulation
Rising air cools & produces rain
Sinking air is heated and becomes dry
Rising boundaries are regions of of higher than average
rainfall
Equator
Rain forests
Temperate forests
Sinking boundaries are regions of lower than average
rainfall
Most of world’s deserts
Poles – small amounts of precipitation remains due to low
evaporation
Rotation
Without rotation
Air flows directly from high to low
pressure areas (fp)
Rotation of earth affects movement
Effect of rotation on
baseball thrown at
North Pole
Space observer sees
straight path
Catcher moves – ball
appears to curve to
the left
Coriolis forces
Inertial atmospheric rotation
Schematic representation
of inertial circles of air
masses in the absence of
other forces, calculated
for a wind speed of
approximately 50 to 70
m/s. Note that the
rotation is exactly
opposite of that normally
experienced with air
masses in weather
systems around
depressions.
Low-pressure area flows
Schematic represen-
tation of flow around a
low-pressure area in
the Northern hemi-
sphere. The Rossby
number is low, so the
centrifugal force is
virtually negligible. The
pressure-gradient force
is represented by blue
arrows, the Coriolis
acceleration (always
perpendicular to the
velocity) by red arrows
Low-pressure system If a low-pressure area
forms in the atmosphere,
air will tend to flow in
towards it, but will be
deflected perpendicular
to its velocity by the
Coriolis force.
Areas of equal
pressure
Frictional Force
Movement of air near surface is retarded by
effects of friction (ff) due to surface
roughness or terrain
Opposite to wind direction
Wind direction is perpendicular to Coriolis
Directly reduces wind speed and
consequently reduces Coriolis force (which is
proportional to wind speed)
Frictional Force
Frictional Force
Friction force is maximum at earth’s
surface
Decreases as height increases
Effect on tall stack not consistent
Effect negligible with strong winds > 6
m/s
Effect at lower speeds < 6 m/s more
significant
Frictional Force
Ф = 5 to 15° over
ocean
Ф = 25 to 45° over
land
As pollutants move
downstream they
diffuse outwardly in y
direction
Disperse vertically in
the z direction
Influence of Ground & Sea
Figure 5-2, simplistic
representation
In reality, land & water do not
respond to solar heating
similarly
Terrain is uneven
Highest mountains rise above
most of atmosphere
Large mountain ranges are major
barriers to horizontal winds
Even small mountain ranges
influence wind patterns
Influence of Ground & Sea
Water adsorbs and transfer heat
differently than rock & soil
Rock and soil radiate heat differently
summer to winter
Vertical Motion
Any parcel of air less dense than
surrounding air will rise by buoyancy
any parcel more dense will sink
Most vertical movement is due to
changes in air density
The pressure at any point in the
atmosphere = pressure required to
support everything above that point
Properties of Gases
If volume of gas is held constant and heat is
applied, temperature and pressure rise
if volume is not held constant and pressure
is held constant, gas will expand and
temperature will rise
Adiabatic expansion or contraction: an
amount of gas is allowed to expand or
contract due to a change in pressure (such as
it would encounter in the atmosphere)
assuming no heat transfer with atmosphere
Lapse Rate
American:
(dT/dz)adiabatic perfect gas = -5.4°F/ft
Metric:
Γ = - 1°C/100m or
SI:
Γ = - 5.4°F/1000ft
Lapse rate
Important characteristic of atmosphere is ability to
resist vertical motion: stability
Comparison of Γ to actual environment lapse rate
indicates stability of atmosphere
Degree of stability is a measure of the ability of the
atmosphere to disperse pollutants
Determines if rising parcel of air will rise high enough
for water to condense to form clouds
International lapse rate
Factors vary somewhat
M
Cp
Meteorologists and aeronautical engineers
have defined
“standard atmosphere”
Represents approximate average of all
observations over most of the world
Summer & winter
Day & night
International Lapse Rate
SI:
Γ = - 6.49°C/km or 0.65 oC/100m
American:
Γ = - 3.45°F/1000ft
“Streams of air carrying Bay Area emissions mix with locally generated
pollution from automobile traffic, small engine exhaust, industry, and
agriculture in the Valley and are diverted both north and south”
Image and text source:
http://www.sparetheair.org/
teachers/bigpicture/IIIA1a.html
Subsidence Inversion
Image Source:
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter17/fav_con
ditions.html
Two more Types of Inversion
Cold Air Flowing Under
Nighttime flow of cold air down valleys
Col air flows under warm air
Winter
Presence of fog blocks sun and inversion persists
Sea or lake breezes also bring cold air under warm air
Warm Air Flowing Over
Same as above but warm air flows over cold trapping it
Warm air frequently overrides colder more dense air
Stability Classes
Developed for use in dispersion models
Stability classified into 6 classes (A – F)
A: strongly unstable
B: moderately unstable
C: slightly unstable
D: neutral
E: slightly stable
F: moderately stable
Wind Velocity Profile
Friction retards wind movement
Friction is proportional to surface roughness
Location and size of surface objects produce
different wind velocity gradients in the vertical
direction
Area of atmosphere influenced by friction –
planetary boundary layer – few hundred m to
several km above earth’s surface
Depth of boundary layer > unstable than stable
conditions
Wind Velocity Profile
Wind speed varies by height
International standard height for wind-
speed measurements is 10 m
Dispersion of pollutant is a function of
wind speed at the height where
pollution is emitted
But difficult to develop relationship
between height and wind speed
Wind Velocity Profile
Power law of Deacon
u/u1 = (z/z1)p
Image Source:
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/
notes/chapter17/fav_conditions.html
Six Classes of Plume Behavior
Coning:
Occurs under neutral
conditions
Stable with small-scale
turbulence
Associated with overcast
moderate to strong
winds
Roughly 10° cone
Pollutants travel fairly
long distances before
reaching ground level in
significant amounts Image Source:
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/
notes/chapter17/fav_conditions.html
Six Classes of Plume Behavior
Fanning:
Occurs under large negative
lapse rate
Strong inversion at a
considerable distance above
the stack
Extremely stable atmosphere
Little turbulence
If plume density is similar to
air, travels downwind at
approximately same elevation Image Source:
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/
notes/chapter17/fav_conditions.html
Six Classes of Plume Behavior
Fumigation:
Stable layer of air lies a
short distance above release
point with unstable air
beneath
Usually early morning after
an evening with a stable
inversion
Significant ground level
concentrations may be
Image Source:
reached http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/
notes/chapter17/fav_conditions.html
Six Classes of Plume Behavior
Lofting
Opposite conditions of fumigation
Inversion layer below with unstable
layer through and above
Pollutants are dispersed downwind
without significant ground-level
concentration
Trapping
Inversion above and below stack
Diffusion of pollutants is limited to
layer between inversions Image Source:
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/
notes/chapter17/fav_conditions.html
Assignment 3
Problems:
3.7
3.9
3.14
Due Thu Feb. 3rd