TWI Weld Imperfection

CSWIP 3.
1 Welding Inspection
Welding & Materials

Imperfections
TWI Training & Examination

Services
Course Reference WIS 5

Course notes section reference 3, 6 & 16
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology Copyright © 2006, TWI Ltd
Welding Imperfections
All welds have imperfections

• Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a
type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard
A defect is an unacceptable imperfection

• A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance
Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard
and require removal/rectification
Standards for Welding Imperfections
BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes –

Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials -
Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
Standards for Welding Imperfections
EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,

nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) - Quality levels for
imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is ‘directly applicable to visual testing of
welds’ ...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
Welding imperfections
classification
Cracks
Cracks
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are
caused generally by many factors and may be
classified by shape and position.
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
•Longitudinal •HAZ
•Transverse •Centerline
•Chevron •Crater
•Lamellar Tear •Fusion zone
•Parent metal
Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.
Cracks
Longitudinal parent metal Transverse weld metal
Longitudinal weld metal

Lamellar tearing
Cracks
Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
Cracks
Main Crack Types

• Solidification Cracks
• Hydrogen Induced Cracks
• Lamellar Tearing
• Reheat cracks
Cracks
Solidification Cracking
• Occurs during weld solidification process
• Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low ductility at
elevated temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
• Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
temperature and hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as result of
contaminated electrode or preparation
• Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
• Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
• Step like appearance
• Occurs in parent material or HAZ
• Only in rolled direction of the parent material
• Associated with restrained joints subjected to through
thickness stresses on corners, tees and fillets
• Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions
Cracks
Re-Heat Cracking
• Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during post weld
heat treatment or service at elevated temperatures
• Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects
• Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor profile
material selection and controlled post weld heat treatment
Welding Imperfections Classification
Cavities
Gas Cavities
Gas pore Cluster porosity
Causes:
•Loss of gas shield
•Damp electrodes
•Contamination
Blow hole •Arc length too large
Herringbone porosity
•Damaged electrode flux
•Moisture on parent material
•Welding current too low
Gas pore <1.5mm

Root piping Blow hole.>1.6mm
Gas Cavities
Porosity
Root piping
Gas Cavities
Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity
Crater Pipe
Weld crater
Crater pipe
Crater Pipe
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has
the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater
Causes:
Crater cracks
(Star cracks) • Too fast a cooling
rate
• Deoxidization
reactions and liquid
to solid volume
change
Crater pipe • Contamination
Solid Inclusions
Solid Inclusions
Slag inclusions are defined as a non-metallic inclusion caused
by some welding process
Causes:
•Slag originates from
welding flux
•MAG and TIG welding
Slag inclusions Lack of sidewall process produce silica
fusion with
associated slag inclusions
•Slag is caused by
inadequate cleaning
•Other inclusions include
tungsten and copper
Parallel slag lines Lack of interun inclusions from the TIG
fusion + slag
and MAG welding process
Solid Inclusions
Interpass slag inclusions Elongated slag lines
Lack of Fusion
Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:
• welding current too low
• bevel angle too steep
• root face too large (single-sided weld)
• root gap too small (single-sided weld)
• incorrect electrode angle
• linear misalignment
• welding speed too high
• welding process related – particularly dip-transfer GMAW
• flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
Lack of Fusion
Causes:
•Poor welder skill
• Incorrect electrode
Incomplete filled groove +
manipulation
Lack of sidewall fusion
• Arc blow
• Incorrect welding
1 current/voltage
2 • Incorrect travel speed
1. Lack of sidewall fusion • Incorrect inter-run cleaning

2. Lack of inter-run fusion
Lack of Fusion
Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
Overlap
Overlap
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal
flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it
Causes:
•Contamination
•Slow travel speed
•Incorrect welding
technique
•Current too low
Overlap
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
Weld Root Imperfections
Causes:
•Low Amps/volts
•Large Root face
Incomplete root fusion •Small Root Gap

•Fast Travel Speed
•Incorrect Electrode
Angle
•Contamination
Incomplete root penetration •Arc blow
Lack of root penetration Lack of root fusion
Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration
A shallow groove caused by contraction in the weld metal
along each side of the penetration bead
Causes:
• Insufficient weld metal
deposited in the root pass
• Too fast a cooling rate during
the application of the root
bead pass
Shrinkage groove • Poor welding technique
A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of a butt weld
Causes:
• Excessive back purge pressure
during TIG welding
• Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
second pass
• welding current too high for 2nd
Concave Root pass overhead welding
• root gap too large - excessive
‘weaving’
Concave Root
Root penetration bead in excess in accordance with the
relevant specification being used
Causes:
• Root faces too small
• Root gap too large
• Excessive amps/volts
Excessive root penetration
• Slow travel speed
Excessive root
penetration
Concave root Excess root penetration
A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive
penetration resulting in a hole in the root run
Causes:
• High Amps/volts
• Small Root face
• Large Root Gap
• Slow Travel Speed
Burn through
Burn Through
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
Causes:
• Loss or insufficient back

purging gas
• Most commonly occurs

when welding stainless
steels
• Purging gases include

argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
Imperfect Shape and Dimensions
Surface and Profile
Incomplete filled groove Poor cap profile
Poor cap profiles and

excessive cap reinforcements
may lead to stress
concentration points at the
weld toes and will also
contribute to overall poor toe
blend Excessive cap height
Surface and Profile
Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove
Surface and Profile
Poor Cap Profile & Poor Toe Blend
Surface and Profile
Poor
Stop / Starts
Cap and Root Undercut
An irregular groove at the toe of a weld run in the parent metal
Causes:
• Excessive amps/volts
• Excessive travel speed
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Excessive weaving
• Incorrect welding
technique
• Electrode too large
• Arc length too high
Cap Undercut
Intermittent Cap Undercut
Undercut
Root undercut Cap undercut
Miscellaneous Imperfections
Arc strike or stray arc:
• accidental striking of an arc on to base material
• loss of welding cable insulation
• poor connection of ’current return’ cable
Spatter:
• excessive current or voltage
Grinding mark / mechanical damage:
• Torn surface
Causes:
• Excessive current
• Damp electrodes
• Contamination
• Incorrect wire feed speed
when welding with the
MAG welding process
• Arc blow
Spatter
Causes:
• Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
• Faulty electrode holder
• Poor cable insulation
• Poor return lead
clamping
Arc strike
Mechanical Damage
Mechanical Damage
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface material
damage cause during the manufacturing process.
• Grinding
• Hammering
• Chiselling
• Chipping
• Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces)
• Using needle guns to compress
weld capping runs
Mechanical Damage
Chipping Marks
Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark
Set-Up Irregularities
Unequal Leg Lengths
A variation of leg lengths on a fillet weld
Note: Unequal leg lengths on a fillet weld may be specified as

part of the design, in which case it will not be
considered as a defect.
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment

(Hi-Lo)
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
Any Questions
?
Material Inspection
Parent Material Imperfections
Material Inspection
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
• Size / dimensions
• Condition
• Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered
depending on the materials form or shape
Pipe Inspection
Condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
Specification LP5
Size
Welded
seam
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of plates and storage*
Plate Inspection
Condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
Specification
5L
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of plates and storage*
Rolling Imperfections
Direction of rolling
Cold Laps*
Laminations
Segregation
Parent Material Imperfections
Mechanical damage Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
Lapping
Lapping
Lapping
Lamination
Laminations
Plate Lamination
Material imperfections
Any Questions
?
Elements
Iron Fe
Carbon C is for Strength
Manganese Mn is for Toughness
Silicon Si < 0.3% Deoxidiser
Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% Deoxidiser +
Toughness
Chromium Cr Corrosion resistance
Molybdenum Mo 1% is for Creep resistance
Elements
Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature applications
Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot
shortness)
Phosphorous P Residual element
Titanium Ti Grain refiner, Used a a micro alloying
element (S&T)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner, Used a a micro alloying
element (S&T)
(S&T) = Strength & Toughness
Stainless Steel

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CSWIP 3.

Welding & Materials

TWI Training & Examination

Course Reference WIS 5

All welds have imperfections

A defect is an unacceptable imperfection

BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes –

EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,

Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.

Longitudinal parent metal Transverse weld metal

Longitudinal weld metal

Transverse crack Longitudinal crack

Main Crack Types

Gas pore <1.5mm

Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity

Crater pipe • Contamination

Interpass slag inclusions Elongated slag lines

1. Lack of sidewall fusion • Incorrect inter-run cleaning

Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove

Weld Root Imperfections

Incomplete root fusion •Small Root Gap

Lack of root penetration Lack of root fusion

Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration

Concave root Excess root penetration

• Loss or insufficient back

• Most commonly occurs

• Purging gases include

Imperfect Shape and Dimensions

Incomplete filled groove Poor cap profile

Poor cap profiles and

Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove

Poor Cap Profile & Poor Toe Blend

Intermittent Cap Undercut

Root undercut Cap undercut

Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark

Note: Unequal leg lengths on a fillet weld may be specified as

Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment

Parent Material Imperfections

Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

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