1.

1 Generating Of Single Phase Alternating Current

1.2 Electromagnetic Induction
1.3 Electric Generator (Dynamo)
1.4 Direct Current Generator
1.5 AC Power and R-L-C circuit
1.6 Complex Power in AC Circuit, R-L-C
1.7 Power Factor Correction

CHAPTER 1: CURRENT GENERATION

DEP 20023
ELECTRICAL MACHINE
AC GENERATOR
3 ITiDi 07/14/2022
System Overview
Principle of Thermal Power Plant
Electric Generators

 Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy

 A direct result of Faraday’s work on induction

 Basically, the inverse of the electric motor which

converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
Electric Current Generated

 Electric current generation - whether from fossil fuels,

nuclear, renewable fuels, or other sources is usually
based on the simple equation for Electricity
Generation :
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 Induced current is
produced from a changing
magnetic field.
 Called electromagnetic
induction
Right hand rules
 Fleming right hand rule is
used to determine the
direction of induced
current when a conductor
cuts through the magnetic
field lines perpendicular.
 The bulb is lighted when a
magnet moves into a solenoid or
coil.

 The magnetic lines are cut by the

solenoid

 When the magnet is remain

static, no induced current
available
FARADAY’S LAW

The induced current can be increased by:

1. Moving the coil or the magnet faster

2. Using a stronger magnet
3. Increasing the number of turns
 DYNAMO
 APPLICATION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
 Dc generator
Working principle of dc generator
 The coil is rotated by external force and cuts the magnetic force. An
alternate e.m.f is induced in the coil, but a dc output is obtained by
using split ring commutator.
 The two halves of the split ring commutator exchange contact with
the carbon brushes every half rotation
 The cutting of magnetic flux is maximum when the coil is at
horizontal position. It decreases when as the coil rotates from
horizontal to vertical position.
 Magnitude of induced flux changes whenever the position of coil
changes.
AC GENERATION
 If the split ring commutator is replaced with two
slip rings, the output is ac. The slip rings are
always in contact with the same carbon brush. The
output current changes direction every half turn.
AC POWER
ADVANTAGES OF AC SYSTEM
 An alternating-current generator (often called an alternator) is more robust, less expensive,
requires less maintenance, and can deliver higher voltages the its DC counterpart.

 The power loss in a transmission lines depends on the square of the current carried (P = I2R). If
the voltage used is increased, the current is decreased, and losses can be made very small.

 The simplest way of stepping up the voltage at the sending end of a line, and stepping it down
again at the receiving end, is to use transformers, which will only operate efficiently from AC
supplies.

 Three-phase AC induction motors are cheap, robust and easily maintained.

 Energy metres, to record the amount of electrical energy used, are much simpler for AC supplies
than for DC supplies.

 Discharge lamps (florescent, sodium, mercury vapour etc.) operate more efficiently from AC
supplies, although filament lamps are equally effective on either type of supply.

 Direct-current systems are subject to severe corrosion, which is hardly present with AC supplies.
RESISTIVE LOAD
 – acts as a heating element.
 Resistive loads convert current into other forms of energy,
such as heat

 Power dissipated in the form of heat

 Ex: bulb/ soldering set

 R
 OHM
INDUCTIVE LOAD

 If it moves, it's  Acts as a magnetic field

probably an inductive
load.  Expand & collapse their
magnetic field to keep
current constant
 L, HENRY
 Power stored & returned to
Note: Inductive loads can cause
source


blowback voltage. Circuits should be

protected from this by diodes.
 Blowback is caused by a surge of
voltage created by the collapsing
 Ex: Motors, solenoids, and
magnetic field in an inductor. relays.
CAPACITIVE LOAD
 Charge & Discharge
to keep voltage
constant

 Acts as an electric
field
 RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
 The sinusoidal waveforms of current flow
and voltage drop at R are said to be in-
phase as in (a)
 Once a current flows through a resistor as
in (i), there will be a voltage drop across
the resistor and hence the relationship
between current (i), voltage drop (v) and
resistance R is defined as:

The relations for peak values and

rms values as below:

The vector diagram as in (b)

INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

 The sinusoidal waveforms of current flow and

voltage drop at L are not in-phase. Current is
lagging voltage by 90º.
 If a current flows through an inductor as in (i),
there will be a voltage drop across the inductor
and hence the relationship between current i,
voltage drop vL and inductor L is defined as:

 the inductive reactance is expressed in ohms (Ω)

as:
CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

 The sinusoidal waveforms of current flow and

voltage appeared at C are not in-phase, current
leads voltage by 90º.
 The rate of current flow through capacitor is
dependant on the rate of increment of voltage vc as
function of time until it has the equivalent voltage
as voltage supply. The relationship can be found as
below.

 the capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms (Ω)

as:
 RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES

THE SUM OF
THE SUM OF VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE: PHASORS:
RESISTANCE & CAPACITANCE IN SERIES

 the current and voltage at resistor only are in-phase,

the resistive element is set as reference for summation
for voltage phasors.

the sum of voltage phasors is:

the sum of voltage is:
 The relationship between impedance and voltage phasors is
illustrated as below:
RLC CIRCUIT
 The common quantity is current flows
through each element. We draw a phasor
diagram by starting with current phasor.
 OA is drawn along I because they are in-
phase. By setting I as a reference phasor,
OB and OC are drawn 90°leading and
lagging. Assuming OB is greater than OC,
EXAMPLE
 A CHOKE WITH INDUCTANCE 0.318H, 30OHM RESISTANCE AND
53MICROFARAD CAPACITOR CONNECTED IN SERIES WITH
230VAC, 50 HZ. CALCULATE:

 1. IMPEDANCE
 2. CURRENT
 3. VOLTAGE ACROSS R, L & C
 4. DRAW THE VOLTAGE PHASOR & IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
 5. THE PHASE ANGLE
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
 In a simple alternating current (AC) circuit
consisting of a source and a linear load, both the
current and voltage are sinusoidal. If the load is
purely resistive, the two quantities reverse their
polarity at the same time, and the direction of
energy flow does not reverse. In this case, only
real power flows.

 If the load is purely reactive, then the voltage

and current are 90° degrees out of phase and
there is no net energy flow. That is, the peaks of
voltage are centered at the times when the
current crosses zero, and is half positive and half
negative. In this case, only reactive power flows
—no net transfer of energy to the load occurs.

 The load can be R, L or C and therefore the

power being transferred to the load can be active
power or reactive power. For a general case, let
us consider the waveform figure where it
describes how the voltage and current are
embodied into the power waveform.

 The term energy stored used to describe that

power flows from source to load and for energy
released power goes back to the source.
POWER TO RESISTIVE LOAD

In a purely resistive circuit all of the power is consumed and none is returned
to the source or in other words it is the power consumed by the resistive loads
in an electrical circuit and named Active/ Real/ True power, P, measured in
Watts
 POWER TO INDUCTIVE LOAD

 The Reactive power, Q is appeared in the form of

magnetic field before it goes back to the source ,
defined as:

The current through an inductor increases from its zero value to its maximum value the field around
the inductor builds up to a maximum, and when the current decreases from maximum to zero the field
collapses and returns the power to the source. You can see therefore that no power is used up in either
case, since the power alternately flows to and from the source. This power that is returned to the
source by the reactive components in the circuit is called REACTIVE POWER, Q. measured in VAR
(VOLT AMPERE REACTIVE)
 POWER IN CAPACITIVE LOAD

 The reactive power, Q is appeared

in the form of electric field before
it goes back to the source ,
defined as:
When an AC is impressed across a capacitor, power is taken from the source and stored in
the capacitor as the voltage increases from zero to its maximum value. Then, as the
impressed voltage decreases from its maximum value to zero, the capacitor discharges and
returns the power to the source.
APPARENT / COMPLEX POWER,S

 If a circuit having a load combination

of resistance and inductance or
capacitance, the term apparent power
is introduced to represent the power
being transferred to the load.

 Apparent  power  (S)  is  the

 power  delivered  to  an  electrical
 circuit. The measurement of apparent
power is in volt- amperes (VA).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN P, Q & S
Summary of power
 REAL POWER,P- dissipated as heat, not returned to source

 REACTIVE POWER,Q
 1) not useful power
 2) stored in circuit L and circuit C
 3) power returned to source

 APPARENT POWER,S
 1) total power delivered by the source
EXAMPLE:
 A load has a resistance of 6 ohm and 0.03 H. It is supplied by
230Vac, 50Hz. Calculate:
1) current
2) phase angle between the current and the applied voltage
3) apparent power
4) active power
 POWER TRIANGLE
 In AC circuits, current and voltage are
normally out of phase and, as a result,
not all the power produced by the
generator can be used to accomplish
work.   
 By the same token, power cannot be
calculated in AC circuits in the same
manner as in DC circuits.   
 The power triangle, shown in figure
equates  AC  power  to  DC  powe by
 showing  the  relationship  
between  generator output (apparent
power - S) in volt-amperes (VA),
usable power (true power - P) in watts,
and wasted or stored power (reactive
power - Q) in volt-amperes-reactive
(VAR).   
POWER FACTOR
 Power Factor is the ratio between the actual power, P to the
apparent power, S.

 Cos θ is called the power factor (pf) of an AC circuit.

 Basically the load being supplied
consists of resistance and inductance.

 This will lead to the appearance of an

active (P) and reactive (Q) power.

 The term “ cosφ ” will cause the

greater or the lower of Q (var), or the
higher the power factor of the load,
the greater the
reactive power, Q. Our aim is to have
a value of (VA) apparent power,
closes to the active power so that the
excessive current drawn by the supply
can be reduced
Power Factor
Types of Power Factor :

Lagging pf Leading pf Unity pf

 Current follow the  Voltage follow the  θVoltage = θCurrent

voltage current  Resistive Load
 Inductive Load  Capacitive Load  Cos θ= 1
 QL = +Ve  QC = -Ve
Causes of Low Power Factor
 Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such
as an induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballast, welder, induction
generator and high intensity lightings.
 Consider a single-phase induction motor. If the motor presented a purely
resistive load to the supply, the current flowing would be in-phase with the
voltage.
 This is not the case. The motor has a magnet and the magnetizing current is
not in phase with the voltage.
 The magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron
and, being out of phase, causes the shaft of the motor to rotate.
 The magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor and will
typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current of the motor.
 The magnetizing current does not contribute to the work output of the motor.
Disadvantages of Low Power Factor
 Increase heating losses in the transformer and
distribution equipments
 Reduce plant life
 Unstabilize voltage level
 Increase power losses
 Upgrade costly equipments
 Decrease energy efficiency
 Increase electricity cost
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

 This can be done by placing a capacitance in

parallel to the load so that the positive Q can be
cancelled by the negative Q.
 The reason to do this correction is to avoid any
damage at the supply since each supply has it
own voltage/current rating.
Advantages of Power Factor Correction
 Eliminate power factor penalties
 Increase System capacity
 Reduce line losses in distribution system
 Improve voltage stability
 Increase equipment life
 Save on utility cost
 Improve energy efficiency
 Improved voltage regulation
 Reduction in size of transformer, cables and
switchgear in new installation