Producing Gender

 advertising and the construction of

identity
 ‘effects’
 arguments for and against regulation of
standards in advertising/ other contents

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Advertising and Construction
of Identity
 Jean Kilbourn’s Killing Us Softly III is
representative of reform liberal feminist
criticism of the media
 Objectification and Beautification also
now extended to young males
 Young men now increasingly into body
building, ‘six packs’ and sexual display

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Key Ideas
 For most people, the identification of oneself as female or male
is the foundation of self-identity
 Men may ‘naturally’ be seen as more aggressive, domineering,
competitive and hierarchically oriented
 Females may ‘naturally’ be seen as more passive, acquiescent,
nurturing , egalitarian and domestically oriented
 These arguments are ‘essentialist’: that is, they assume a kind of
biological determinism or universal pattern of culture
 BUT:
 Biology may determine our sex as male or female but culture
shapes the content and conduct of what it takes to be a woman
or a man (Fleras,2001:112)
 Gender identity is socialized: it is a cultural construct that the media actively work
to promote
 Sex/gender distinction is a matter of social power
 Therefore: media representation of gender important

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Theoretical Basis for Critique
 Based on Cultivation Hypothesis
 Repeated exposure to stereotypes of women may
‘condition’ a world view where
 Women are subordinate
 Women are defined by sexual display
 Women are sexually available ( see Signorelli of the
Annenberg school)
 Reinforcing patriarchal social values
( hegemonic/dominant cultural power)

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Theory 2
 Effects studies
 Tannis McBeth Williams
 Experimental study Notel, Unitel, Multitel
introduction of TV to a Northern Canadian
Community
 Found children’s play exhibited more sex-role
stereotyped behaviors after introduction of TV
 Perceptions more traditional
 Judge stories on the basis of what they look like
rather than what they do

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Theory 3
 Studies of Social Psychology
 Emergence of self esteem
 Body Image
 Trend to thinner and thinner models
 ( average more than 30% underweight)
 More and more young women would like to
look differently, are dieting for ideal shape
 Rise of eating disorders, both genders

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Theory 4
 Stereotype: a reduction of persons to a set of
exaggerated, usually negative, character
traits
 How measured:
 ‘content analysis’
 Textual analysis: roles
 Madonna/whore dichotomy
 Other common stereotypes ( Meehan)
 Matriarch, goodwife, witch, bitch,decoy, victim, courtesan,
siren or temptress.
 Concern with images of women, tries to make assertions
about the truth and falsity of representations:

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Theory 5
 Political Ideology:
 Rise of egalitarianism
 Charter of Rights and Freedoms since 1982
 Growing labour force participation of women
( equal economic partners)
 Concern to remove sexist and discriminatory
barriers
 Different cultural values
 US public opinion polls reveal a more patriarchal set of
values; no entrenched Constitutional provision prohibiting
discrimination on basis of gender, age, sexual orientation,
or race as there is in Canada ( preamble to Charter)

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Theory 6
 Also implicit is the variant of feminist
ideology:
 Liberal feminism– concern with removing sexist barriers
 Radical Feminism-concern with ideological transformation,
oppression-free society
 Conservative Feminism- concern with restoring religious and
maternal values
 ‘Post modern Feminism’- celebrating female empowerment,
differences, permissive sexuality ( Madonna and freedom of sexual
expression) ( Barker, p. 103.)

CMNS 130 9
Theory 7
 In addition to a democratic point of view
about gender equality, there are hidden
assumptions about the role of the media
 Fleras: courseware: 225 argues:
 In short, critics from Jean Kilbourne to Germaine Greer tend to
admonish the media for refusing to reflect the multi faceted realities of
contemporary women. Yet the media do not claim to reflect reality:
Only a degree of realism is required. Nor are the media in any position
to address the diverse realities occupied by women…( they) can only
attempt to combine elements of fantasy and realism in a way that
embraces realistic images for commercial or ideological purposes.
 Is this a cynical neo-liberal or libertarian view?

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State Response
 If public pressure, state may:
 Regulate ( CRTC until the 1990s)
 Call for self-regulation and industry
standards ( with threat of sanction)
 Educate/encourage literacy campaigns

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History of Regulation
 When films first introduced in North America, widespread moral
panics ( 20s and 30s)
 Payne Studies looked at influence of film on youth and moral
standards
 Under pressure from various conservative and religious
groups( Catholic Legion of decency) in the 1930s, the US had a
Motion Picture Production Code– featuring prior restraint
( cutting ) for “excessive and lustful kissing,lustful embraces,
suggestive postures and gestures”
 In force in the US until Miracle case ( Roberto Rosellini) in the
1950s
 In Canada, continue to have provincial censorship boards for
film

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History 2
 In 1968 Jack Valenti of the Motion Pictures
Association of America set up a voluntary
ratings system administered by an industry
association:
 G– general audiences
 PG-parental guidance
 PG-13- parenst strongly cautioned
 R-restricted, or NC-17 (Eyes Wide Shut)
 Wider ambit for regulation after introduction of
broadcasting

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Canadian Broadcast Standards
Council
 Broadcasting has a regulator charged with oversight
of quality and diversity of content; unlike print media
 CRTC insisted on the creation of a TV industry
council and guidelines in early 1990s
 Unlike the US, Canada has a set of standards on sex
role portrayal guidelines
 Canada singled out as a leader worldwide
( Gallagher, 2001)

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CBSC Sex Role Portrayal
Guidelines for TV
 Endorses non sexist language
 Realistic balance in use of women and men as
voiceovers and as experts and authorities
 Visibility and Involvement of women in broadcasting
on and off air
 Portrayal of women and men with diversity of age,
abilities, physical appearance, ethnic origin,
occupation,family structure,and household
responsibilities ( a broad demographic spectrum)

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CBSC 2
 Injunction on ‘sex-ploitation’
 “TV and radio shall refrain from the exploitation of women,
men and children. Negative or degrading comments… shall
be avoided. Modes of dress, camera, focus on body… should
not be degrading to either sex. The sexualization of children
through dress or behavior is not acceptable”
 Accepts complaints and rules on them: decisions found on
CBSC website
 Leading case against the Howard Stern Show (1997) held that
“women in this country are entitled to the respect which their
intellectual, emotional and personal and artistic qualities merit.
Nor more than men. No less than men. But every bit as much
as men.”

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Advertising Standards Canada
 Guidelines hold that:
 Advertising should strive for equal representation

 Avoid inappropriate use or exploitation of sexuality for both men

and women ( when sexuality on display merely for gratification

of others, and not relevant to product, or creative scenario)
 On sexualization of portrayal:
 There is nothing wrong with positive, relevant sexuality in

advertising which portrays a person in control of and celebrating

his/her own sexuality…however, people must not be portrayed
as primarily sexual or defined by their sexuality. Clothes,
behaviors, positions, poses, cameral angles, camera as voyeur,
audio or product placement can all contribute implicitly or
explicitly to sexualization

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ASC
 On Irrelevant Sexual Association:
 using or deisplaying a woman’s sexuality in order to sell a product that has no relation
to sexuality is by definition exploitative
 Advertising must avoid the exploitation of nudity and irrelevant segmentation of body
parts
 On Sexual Harrassment:
 People must not portray sexual harrassment as acceptable or normal behavior in
either covert or overt ways and should avoid representing women as prey or objects
of uncontrolled desire
 On Objectification and Commoditization:
 People should not be portrayed as objects, toys, animals or with animal like
characteristics. Nor should products be attributed with negative gender stereotypical
traits
 On Violence:
 Neither sex should be portrayed as exerting dominance over the other by means of
overt or implied threats or actual force.
 Images or texts which imply domination, aggression or violence or enjoyment of
same, should not be used.

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Review of the Standards
Councils
 Voluntary
 Issues warnings or suggest discontinuance
 Little teeth
 Interest groups like Mediawatch or Canadian
Centre on Race Relations are concerned
about:
 Low public awareness of the codes
 Low numbers of complaints
 Little review of the decisions for consistency with
the Charter of Rights and Freedoms

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Major problems
 Despite the fact that Canada is among the leaders in setting
ethical standards of gender representation, these codes are
toothless when it comes to foreign imports
 There is no global system to protest offensive contents made in
another country and received directly ( via satellite from them)
 But, if, say the Simpsons is carried by a Canadian license
broadcaster, it is subject to Canadian jurisdiction

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Defense from Advertisers
 Creative expression and humourous context can
excuse sexism
 Individual creative teams cannot be responsible for
systemic sexism
 Stereotypes are universal and effective cultural
shorthand ( recognition value does not imply belief)
 Narratives are mythical: to provoke desire, not mimic
reality
 People seek ideals not reality based portrayals

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Tests for Textual Analysis:
Stereotyping and Sexploitation
 Is sexual commercial appeal ‘gratuitous’?
 Are women depicted as obsessed with appearance?
 Are women defined by relationship to the ‘male
gaze’?
 Lack of face-ism
 Licensed withdrawal( fantasy)
 Unsolicited or unreciprocal touch
 Cant of head, eye contact
 Bodily domination ( centre in picture)
 Are they depicted in domestic/maternal or social
relationships?

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Decoding Grrl Power
 Cannot underestimate ‘desire’– pleasures of
romance, male attention, ‘sexual currency’
 Paradox of pleasure, empowerment through
sexual display and fear of ‘ecstasy’
 Willing ‘consumption’ of popular media
images of women– younger and younger

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Tests for Analysis: Degradation
and Dehumanization
 Abusive and discriminatory speech
 Promoting hatred against a specific group ( with risk
of demonstrable harm)
 Undue exploitation of power relationship
( subjugation)
 Violence against women: degradation and
dehumanization
 Toughest area: in the grey area between
pornography, erotica and popular culture
 Tolerance for graphic depictions of sex ( and deviancy)
 Turns on issue of consent
 Protects against exploitation of children

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Obscenity
 Radically different cultural interpretations over time
 Governed by the Criminal Codes
 Definition has moved from religious to secular interpretation
 Religious: anything that dilutes moral standards
 Secular:
 Turns on ‘average person applying contemporary community standards
in finding that the material appeals to prurient interests’
 Modern Canadian Definition:
 Depiction or description of sexual content in a patently offensive way
 No offsetting serious literary, artistic or other value
 In Canada: RCMP raids on bookstores eg. Little Sisters
 An active lobby against censorship ( Library Associations, Writers’
Guilds, Civil Liberties Associations)

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Further Reading
 www.mediawatch.ca/watching the watchers
 Barker,C.1999. “ Sexed Subjects and Gendered Representations” TV,
Globalization and Cultural Identity
 Gallagher,M.2001. Gendersetting
 Martin. M. 1997.’Capitalism and Partriarchy as Concepts of Media
Consumption Analysis’ in Communication and Mass Media

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