PSYC 102

Psychology for Everyday Living

Course Syllabus & first lecture
 Lecture objectives

 Gain a general/overall idea of what the course is

about
 Understand course rubrics/ expectations of
students/lecturer
 Refresh our memories on Last semester’s lectures
 Briefly describe topics for this semester
COURSE OVERVIEW
 General Overview

 Psyc 102 discusses interesting issues in every day life:

Psychology in our everyday lives as students!
 The course is designed to:
 Help remind us of the origins and various schools, theories thoughts
Psychology
 Help us understand the relevance of psychology in our student lives
 Help highlight some challenges to student lives and how psychology could be
applied to help
 Acquaint ourselves with current research and ideas on issues such as self-
esteem, the psychology of learning and interpersonal relationships
 General Overview
Expected Learning Outcomes:
 Define psychology and explain what psychologists do
 Describe goals and scope of psychology
 Explain basic psychological concepts such as self-esteem, stress and
learning
 Describe coping strategies against stress
 Describe major psychological processes by which learning occurs
 Measure/ assess self-esteem and perceived stress
 State some factors necessary for forming inter-personal relationships
 General Overview
 Plagiarism Policy:

Plagiarism in any form is unacceptable and shall be

treated as a serious offence. Appropriate sanctions, as
stipulated in the Plagiarism Policy, will be applied when
students are found to have violated the Plagiarism
policy. ALL students are expected to familiarize
themselves with the contents of the Policy.
Please see: http://www.ug.edu.gh/aqau/policies-guidelines.
 General Overview
Assessment and grading:
 Interim Assessment 1 30%
 Interims assessment 2 20%
 End of Semester exam 50%

Exam formats will be communicated at a later date

Grading Scale:
 Refer to undergraduate handbook

Points to note:
 Course content may be modified in the course of the semester where necessary
 It will be in your best interest to always attend class and be on time
 Please check department notice board for tutorial times and please attend tutorials.
 General Overview
Class Norms:
 All students will participate in class
 Class participation is graded
 Reading assigned texts before class is mandatory

Classroom manners:
 Mind your language
 Respect everyone’s views/ opinions
 Endeavour not to be late to class
 Please put your phones on silence
 General Overview

Students with special Needs:

 Contact Office of Students with Special Needs
 The Counselling and Career Center can also help
 You are welcome to speak to the lecturer for any
assistance they can provide
 General Overview

Course Delivery Schedule

Check the printed course syllabus

OBSERVATIONS FROM LAST
SEMESTER’S WORK
 Comments on Exams
1. Course Registration
2. Checking SAKAI regularly and “READING”
announcements
3. Network challenges and what to do
4. Bring your complaints on time within deadlines
5. Stop lying about network challenges and cheating
6. Your internet at home or at your hostel may not be
strong. It is advisable to do your IAs at UGCS on
campus where you can get support.
WEAR YOUR NOSE MASK TO
COVER YOUR NOSE
 PSYC 102 : Psychology for Everyday Living

The Psychology of Learning

 The psychology of Learning
For centuries, psychologists and scholars in other disciplines have been interested


in how humans and other organisms learn

This interest ties in with our quest to understand and influence behavior.


However:

There continues to be challenges in establishing a single, universally accepted



definition of learning

Over the years, various scholars have given their ideas of how the concept of


learning can be defined:


The psychology of learning
1. Hall (2003):
“Learning refers to the process by which an animal
(human or non-human) interacts with its environment
and becomes changed by this experience so that its
subsequent behavior is modified”

2. Breedlove et al, (2007)

“The process of acquiring new and relatively
enduring information, behavior patterns or
ability characterised by modification of behavior
as a result of practice, study or experience”
 The psychology of learning
3. Mazur (2013):
“Learning is a process of change
that occurs as a result of an individual’s experience”

Psyc Central (2018):

“…Learning can be defined as the
process leading to a relatively permanent
behavioral change or potential behavioural change…”

See: Baron et al (2015). Embracing multiple definitions of

learning. for a list of other definitions given by scholars from
different discipline.
 The psychology of learning
 The most commonly used definition of learning in psychology:

Mayer (2009)
“Learning is a relatively permanent change in a person’s
knowledge or behavior due to experience”

 The various definitions show some certain key

characteristics or components of learning that scholars agree
on.

 These components or characteristics are often referred to as

attributes of learning
 Attributes of learning

1. Learning is a process:
Learning occurs over time and follows a process and is not a
single event. It begins from somewhere. E.g. One event and
continues before actual learning occurs

2. Change due to learning is long-term, not short-term

The phrases “enduring” and “relatively permanent” used in the
definitions mean that the change that occurs during learning lasts
longer compared to other changes in the individual that are not a
result of learning. eg,. Changes in behavior due to drugs, illness
etc. are not changes due to learning
 Attributes of learning
3. The locus of the change is the content and structure of
knowledge not the behavior of the learner
When learning occurs, information about the
event/situation/object etc. is stored or changed in the brain and
this also orchestrates changes in the individual’s behavior

4. Experience causes the change

The change in behavior is not evident/ does not occur until the
individual goes through a prior experience. Therefore, the cause
of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment
rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or
physiological intervention.
 Attributes of learning
5. The learning process may not be directly observable
The actual learning process may not be directly observable because
the acquisition and storage of information are internal processes.
However, the change in behaviour manifests in the individual’s
activities.

E.g. One cannot know the amount of learning that has occurred in a
student until he/ she writes a test/ performs an activity

6. The change in behavior desirable/ undesirable

Learning results in a change in behavior. This change could be for
better or for worse. The new behavior could be a desirable one or an
undesirable one.
Relevance of learning
Reflect and discuss with the person next to you
(2 min) :

why is learning relevant/ important to us?

 Relevance of learning
 Learning enables us acquire essential life skills and abilities e.g.
language and communication, right and wrong etc.

 Learning helps in the acquisition of knowledge (information, ideas,

etc.,) and skills (writing, dancing, driving, etc.,) among others .

 Effective social interaction/interpersonal relations, emotional maturity

etc., are also acquired through one or a combination of the various
types of learning

 Learning helps us adapt to our environment and improve our wellbeing

 Domains of learning
 Learning can occur in different domains/ aspects of the
individual’s life:

 Psychomotor domain: this includes the acquisition of physical

skills like walking, talking, etc.

 Cognitive domain: includes the ability to acquire, retain and

organize information to solve problems

 Affective domain: includes the acquisition of attitudes,

values, feelings etc.
Home Reading
Types of learning
 Types of learning
Psychologists differentiate between different types of learning:

1. Classical Conditioning (CC):

• This type of learning was accidentally discovered by Pavlov (1927)
while studying gastric secretion/digestion in dogs.

• The key issue in CC is the formation of association between/among

stimuli which originally/initially may have nothing in common.

• Learning here occurs through a stimulus-response mechanism when

an organism learns to respond to a stimulus in a particular way after
that stimulus has been paired with another one over a period of time.
 Types of learning

Pavlov’s experimental trials:

1. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) =Unconditioned
response (UCR)

2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) = Neutral response (NR)

3. UCS +NS = UCR

4. CS = CR
Classical conditioning
Classical Conditioning
• Extinction: occurs when the CS is continuously
presented( after the association) without the UCS.
This – weakens the association between the CS and the
UCS
• Spontaneous recovery - the re-ignition of the
association between the CS and the UCS after
extinction
•

Note: Classical Conditioning is also known as learning

by association
Classical conditioning
 The principles of CC is applicable in various
aspects of everyday life. Give one example of a
practical life situation
Application of Classical conditioning

1. Advertising

2. Aversive
Conditioning:
Treating alcohol/drug
addiction
 Types of Learning
2. Operant Conditioning
This is a neo-Behaviorist theory of learning in organisms.

 It argues that the organism/ individual is not a passive

recipient of stimulus-response processes but rather actively engages/
operates with the environment before learning occurs.

 It argues that the individual’s behavior is governed by the

anticipated consequences rather than automatic response elicited by
a stimulus.

 Simply put, an organism first acts in a way and the consequences of

that action determine the change that will occur in the behavior
Operant conditioning
 This type of learning is therefore called
instrumental learning because the organism is
instrumental in the learning process.

 The organism/ individual becomes ‘conditioned by

its operation’
Application of Operant Conditioning

 Raffles and Draws

are often based on
operant conditioning

 Eg. Scratch and win

promotions, lotteries
etc
Types of Learning
3. Social Learning
This type of learning occurs when organisms/
individuals adapt their behavior as a result of their
social environment.

Three types of social learning are commonly

discussed in basic psychology:
 Vicarious Learning:
This is also called learning by observation. It occurs when
individuals observe the behaviours of others and learn from the
consequences of those behaviours.

 Self-Regulatory Learning:
This is another type of observational learning where individuals
observe/ reflect on their own behavior, evaluate it by their own
standards and reinforce or punish themselves.

Note: there is another form of social learning called modelling.

Google it!!
 Types of learning

4. Habituation: considered as the simplest form of

learning. It enables the individual to adapt to, and/or
ignore certain regular environmental variables/stimuli in
order to reduce sensory overload

5. Complex learning: involves the integration of

knowledge, skills etc., that goes beyond the forming of
associations as is largely the case of classical and operant
conditioning. e.g. strategizing
Factors Influencing Learning
 Factors influencing Learning
Points to note:
 The efficiency of learning (in both human and non-human subjects) can

depend on a host of factors

 Learning is described as efficient when what is learnt can easily be

retained and recalled.

 Psychological experiments and experiences from learning professionals

have produced a list of factors that could influence or affect learning.

 This list is not exhaustive though as more research is coming out with
additional factors
Factors influencing learning
 Follow the link below to read a chapter on learning:

http://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&ved
=2ahUKEwiY0ryepcfgAhVgTBUIHTUUBekQFjAJeg
QICRAC&url=http%3A%2F
%2Flabs.psychology.illinois.edu%2F~asbenjam
%2Fpubs
%2FBenjamin_Book_Chapter_2014.pdf&usg=AOvV
aw0TOYB0T3H54AhEqM-1yB9H
 Factors influencing learning
 In this lecture we will group the factors influencing
/affecting learning into two:

 Learner factors

 Other Factors
 Discuss in twos:

What factors about a learner can affect

their own learning/ learning efficiency?
 Factors influencing learning
Learner factors:
 These are characteristics about the learner that may help or
harm their learning.

 They include:

1. Motivation:
 The learner’s motive to learn and acquire new knowledge

and the value attached to this new knowledge determines the

effort exerted towards the learning activity. This effort has a
direct influence on the amount of learning that will occur.
 Factors influencing learning
Motivation can be:
 Intrinsic: where the individual has an innate drive to

learn because they like it or it satisfies them,

 extrinsic: where the learner is driven by an external

force eg. reward or punishment from a higher
authority to learn.

 Intrinsically motivated learning is often found to be

more efficient than extrinsically motivated learning
 Factors influencing learning
2. Intelligence:
 A concept that is difficult to define.

 Various groups/scholars have given similar but different definitions of

intelligence.

 American Psychological association(APA): ability to understand

complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from
experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome
obstacles by taking thought.”

 See Legg (2006) A collection of definitions of intelligence for

different definitions that have been put forward for intelligence
 Factors influencing learning
 Effective/efficient learning depends on
ability to encode, recall and utilize
information/skill to solve problems. This is
a function of intelligence.

 The learner’s intelligence level is therefore a

key influence on how much and how well
they are able to learn.
 Factors influencing learning
3. Maturation
 Like intelligence, maturation has been defined differently

 Boring, Longfeld & Weld (undated): Maturation means

growth and development that is necessary either before
any unlearned behaviour can occur or before the learning
of any particular behaviour can take place.

 In simple terms, Maturation refers to the ways in which

we grow and develop throughout the lifespan
 Factors influencing learning
 Before learning occurs, the learner should have attained
the physical and cognitive|psychological maturity
necessary to understand the content to be learnt.

 Eg. A child has to develop legs before it can learn to walk

and a learner’s brain needs to be fully developed before it
can process complex information

 Maturation is a change/improvement in structure and

function that occurs in an organism not as a result of
biological processes not learning.
 Factors influencing learning
4. Physical condition of the learner
 The learners physical condition can impact their ability to learn in many ways

Eg. Sensory defects of the eyes, ears etc. as well as fatigue and ill health can
inhibit or hinder the learner’s ability to receive and process information, or
practice a skill to acquire knowledge about it

5. Mental Health of the learner

 Psychological and educational studies show that the mental state/state of

mind of the learner can affect attention, concentration etc. necessary for
learning to take place

Eg. Extreme anxiety, depression, worries, fears, emotional disturbances etc.

have negative impacts on learning
 Factors influencing learning
6. Learner’s previous knowledge|experience
 The learner’s previous experiences may also affect their ability to learn new

things.

Eg. Previously negative experience may affect a learner’s ability to learn new
skills or behavior especially if they are similar to they previous experience

7. Active practice and repetition:

The degree or extent of the learner’s active participation, repetition and
rehearsals of the skill or content in the teaching –learning interaction
determines the extent of encoding and recall which further reflect how much
learning occurs.
 Factors influencing learning
Other Factors
Aside from characteristics of the learner, other factors external to the


individual may influence learning:

1.The physical learning environment/conditions:

This included the physical structures/ utilities/ infrastructure etc. that
necessary to create a conducive environment where effective learning
can occur.

Eg. In classroom situation, the class size, lighting, ventilation, design

of the classroom, location, distractions etc. make up the learning
environment and these may affect learning.
 Factors influencing learning
2. Distributed Learning
 Learning schedules that are spaced out with enough

breaks and rests allow for more effective learning.

This is called distributed learning.

 This is necessary because learning capacity decreases

with time and fatigue.

 After some continuous periods of learning, one has to

take a walk or chat for a while before continuing again
 Factors influencing learning
3. Teaching methods and aids:
 The methods adopted by the educator/teacher and

the aids adopted for the teaching –learning

interaction influences the amount of learning that
occurs

 Learner-centered approaches with audio-visual aids

and practical or participatory sessions have been
found to be more effective for learning compared
to teacher-centered approaches.
 Factors influencing learning
4. The content
 The content refers to the material to be learnt.

 In order for effective learning to occur, the content

being taught must be relevant to the leaner and elicit
their interest.

 The content must also be designed according to the

maturity levels of the learner and must be structured
to fit their understanding
 Factors influencing learning
4. Timing of the teaching/learning
 Learning has been found to be more effective when the

teaching is scheduled at times that are convenient to the

learner and at which the leaner is relaxed and ready.

 Some studies (eg. Monguno et al, 2017) have found that

learning is more effective at certain times of the day when
the temperature is cooler. Eg. mornings and evenings).

 The teaching could also be planned at time when the

learner actually needs to learn that content.
 Factors influencing learning
5. The educator|teacher
 Characteristic of the teacher can also affect the effectiveness of learner

Studies have found that:

 Teacher/educator’s communication skills eg. Voice modulation, body

language can affect the learner’s encoding and recall or attention to the
content.

 Depth of the teacher/educator’s own knowledge of the content

influences their ability to explain which then influences the learner’s
understanding
Factors influencing learning
 Physical characteristics of the teacher/educator could
influence the learner’s concentration/attention etc.

 The teacher or educator’s attitude towards learners

could encourage or discourage them.

 Eg. Unnecessary scolding, criticism, punishments

etc. could reduce the learner’s motivation and interest
in the material to be learnt
Factors influencing learning
6. Feedback/Results communication
 The provision of feedback on results after assessment

of learning helps learners reflect and re-strategise to

improve their learning

 For feedback to be effective, it must be timely and

constructive to encourage the learner to put in more
effort or stay on course
Improving learning
 How to improve learning Learning
Class activity:

Pick any of the points we have discussed that can affect learning and explain how that point
can be used to improve learning

Demonstration:
Characteristics of the educator:
For effective learning,
1. the teacher or educator must be well versed in the content and be able to demonstrate the

skill or knowledge to the understanding of the learners.

2. Demonstrate good attitudes that encourage learner participation and interest in the content