UNIT I: Understanding Learning

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

(Cognitive, Metacognitive, Motivational and
Affective)

Introduction

As human beings, we are born to learn because of our

rationality. Learning is part of our innate tendency. Every day is a learning
day for each one of us. Not only children learn, but adults do learn too.
Learning, as Lynda Kelly (2002) puts it, ‘is a very individual, complex, and, to
some degree, an indescribable process: something we just do, without ever
thinking too much about it’. It is also a complex social activity. Perhaps the
most striking result of recent research around learning in childhood and
adolescence is that very little comes through conscious and deliberate
teaching (Gopnik 2016). It comes from participation in life (infed.org).

As would-be-teachers, your basic task is to be able to facilitate

learning. This task is not an easy one, considering the diverse learners that
you may have inside the classroom. So, in order to prepare you for your work
ahead, you need to understand first what learning is. This unit will provide
you with inputs in understanding learning.

Lesson 1 will aid you in understanding the learner-centered principles

in learning. You have to bear in mind that there is a shift from teacher-
centered teaching to a learner-centered one. This means that activities done
in school must take the learner as its prime consideration, with the teacher as
mere facilitator. This is quite opposite from what stakeholders of the
educational process expect. The shift, however is a result of continuous
research on what is the best way in order to effect learning. Hence, today all
of the teacher’s actions should lead towards the realization of the learning
outcomes, that is the development of the learner.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Lesson, you should have:

 Defined and explained the following: learning, learning theory,

learner-centered principles;
 Discussed the different types of learning;
  Explained the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and affective
principles in learning;
 Discussed the implications of these principles in teaching.

Activity

Activity 1. Describe a specific task that you like/love doing. Describe how you
become skillful in doing this task.

Analysis

Out of the activity, write a paragraph about learning.

Abstraction

The Nature of Learning

Learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the learner. The
change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or
incorrect, and conscious or unconscious (Mayer, 2011; Schunk, 2012, Woolfolf, 2013;
Brawner, 2018). To qualify for learning, the change should be brought about by
experience or by interaction of the person with the environment. It is not learning if
the change is brought about by maturation like getting taller or hair turning gray.
Temporary changes due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included as
examples of learning (Brawner, 2018).

Burns (1995) in Brawner (2018) defined learning as a relatively permanent

change in behavior with behavior including both observable activity and internal
processes such as thinking, attitudes, and emotions.

Santrock (2012) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on

behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience. For
Santrock, learning is a long-term change in mental representations or associations as
a result of experience.

Learning is a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring

information or ‘knowing a lot’. Learning is memorizing. Learning is storing
information that can be reproduced. Learning is acquiring facts, skills, and methods
that can be retained and used as necessary. Learning is making sense or abstracting
meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other and to
the real world. Learning is interpreting and understanding reality in a different way.
Learning involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting knowledge Ramsden
1992).

According to Brawner (2018), the definition of learning covers the following

elements:

1. It is a long-term change (although it does not necessarily last forever).

2. The change is brought about by experience.
3. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental
illness, fatigue, hunger or the like.
4. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its
basis in the brain.

Woolfolk (2016) as cited in Brawner (2018) asserts that learning occurs when
experience (including practice) causes a relatively permanent change in an
individual’s knowledge, behavior or potential for behavior. For Omrod (20150 as cited
by Brawner (2018), learning is a long-term change in mental representations or
associations as a result of experience.

Learning is also defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that

occurs as a result of practice and experience. From the definitions, learning has three
important elements: a) a change in behavior, better or worse); b) change takes
place through practice or experience, (not changes due to growth or maturation);
and c) behavior change must be relatively permanent and last for a fairly long time.
All learning involves activities, whether physical or mental. Activities learned by the
individual refer to types of learning, as for example, habits, skills, facts (Learning:
Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of Learning, n.d.; Brawner, 2018).

Gagne (1982) defined learning as ‘a change in human disposition or capacity

that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of
growth. In the 1990s, learning was often described as the relatively permanent
change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience (infed.org).

Types of Learning (Brawner, 2018)

1. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through

daily life activities as for example, walking, running, driving, climbing, and the
like. These activities involve motor coordination.

2. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of spoken language as well as the

communication devices used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds
are tools used in such activities.

3. Concept Learning. A form of learning which requires the use of higher-order

mental processes like thinking, reasoning and analyzing. It involves two
processes: abstraction and generalization.
4. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to differentiate between stimuli and
responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is being able to
distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and ambulance.

5. Learning of Principles. It is learning the principles related to science,

mathematics, grammar and the like. Principles show the relationship between
two or more concepts, some examples of which are formulas, laws, associations,
correlations, and the like.

6. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning

requires the use of cognitive abilities -such as thinking, reasoning, observation,
imagination and generalization.

7. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts

behavior. Learned attitudes influence one’s behavior toward people, objects,
things or ideas.

Nature of Theories of Learning

A learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how individuals

acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. Learning theories try to explain how people
learn and why they learn. They also try to explain the phenomenon of learning- its
nature, and the conditions under which learning best occurs. Explanations, however
are tentative, although they are not based on mere guesses. They are products of
research or scientific study. Theories may guide teachers to have a better
understanding of how learning occurs and how learners learn (Educational Learning
and Learning Theories, n.d.; Brawner, 2018).

What do we mean by “Learner-Centered”?

Learner-centered is a perspective that learning is focused on individual learners

– their heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests,
capacities, and needs (Brawner, 2018).

For a better understanding of the term learner-centered, the following are

principles meant to provide a framework for developing and incorporating new
strategies and designs of teaching:

Learner-centered principles…

 Pertain to the learner and the learning process.

 Focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the
learner.
 Deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal factors.
 Are seen as organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in isolation.
 Are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective,
developmental, social, and individual differences. These are factors related to
learning.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors (Bulusan et al., 2019)

There are 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles. These are

categorized as follows: 1) Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors,2) Motivational and
Affective, 3) Developmental and Social, 4) Individual Difference Factors.

Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they
process the information. The way learners think about their thinking as they engage
in mental tasks is the concern of the metacognitive factors.

According to Bulusan et al. (2019), the following are the principles of learning
along cognitive and metacognitive factors:

1. The learning of complicated subject matter is most effective when it

is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information
and experience.

The important word in this principle is intentional. It says in this principle that
learning of complicated or difficult subject matter or topic requires decision
on the part of the learner. A learner who intends to learn or has the intention
or desire or willingness to learn is one who is aware of his learning process.
He/she is conscious of what he/she is doing and helps himself/herself to
enhance his/her learning.

The implication of this principle to the teachers is that they should guide the
learners to become active, goal-directed and self-regulating learners, who are
willing to assume personal responsibility of their learning. How should
teachers effectively guide learners? Teachers should provide activities and
opportunities for learners to integrate knowledge and concepts to their
experiences. Whenever teachers plan their lessons and topics, they need to
consider how they can bring reality in the classroom. Learners need to have a
clear and concrete understanding of knowledge and concepts presented so
that they would also know if in what particular situation would they apply
them. Learning through experience is the most effective way of teaching.

2. The successful learner over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.
Since learners are required to be goal-directed, teachers have to guide them
in terms of determining their personal goals. They need to set their goals, not
dictated by others, to ensure their willingness to achieve them. Learners who
do not have goals are aimless and are not striving because they could not see
the worth of what they are doing. Meaningful learning takes place when what
is presented to learners is very much related to their needs and interests.
Teachers have to motivate learners to set goals and work towards its
attainment.
3. The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
In planning a new lesson to be presented, teachers would usually find it more
effective when they connect the learners’ existing knowledge to the new
information. The integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be
learned is a way of making connections between what is new and what is
already known. That new knowledge created from old knowledge is the very
heart of constructivism. Teachers should initiate more opportunities for
learners to share ideas, experiences, observations, and readings as the need
arises. Sharing prior knowledge can be done in creative strategies like
concept mapping, group activities, and other collaborative techniques where
learners are also able to learn from each other’s experiences.

4. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking

and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Strategic thinking is a person’s ability to use knowledge in different ways to
solve problems, address concerns and issues, decrease difficulties in certain
situations, and make sound decisions and judgments in varied conditions.
Strategic thinkers do not easily give up even in difficult situations. They are
more challenged to find ways to solve a problem no matter how many times
they already failed. They are not afraid to commit mistakes because they
perceive them as meaningful learning experiences to continuously discover
other ways of arriving at solutions. Teachers are supposed to give them as
many opportunities to learn, experiment, solve, and explore new ideas and
concepts. Thus, to motivate and encourage the learners to be more creative
and innovative in their ideas, opinions, and responses of students have to be
accepted by teachers.

5. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental

operations facilities creative and critical thinking.
One of the most challenging roles of the teachers is to develop among their
learners higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). It means that their learners can
do evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation of varied concepts,
information and knowledge. As previously mentioned, learners develop their
thinking skills when they are provided with opportunities and learning
experiences to process varied events and situations, specifically if given real
problems. Assessment tools should be authentic.

6. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices.

Learning does not only take place inside the classroom. Much of what
learners learn in the classroom with their teachers can only have meaning
once they see them concretely in their every day life. Examples given in the
classroom should reflect real life situations. The digital tools and instructional
practices must be carefully selected to facilitate a motivating, stimulating, and
encouraging learning environment geared toward effective acquisition of
knowledge, concepts, and skills among learners.
Motivational and Affective Factors

How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the
concerns of the motivational factors. Meanwhile, the affective factors relate to the
attitude, feelings, and emotions that learners put into the learning task.

1. What and how much are learned are influenced by the learner’s
motivation.
Motivation to learn is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interests and goals, and habits of thinking. Motivation plays a very important
role in learning. It pertains to an individual’s inner drive to do something,
accomplish something, pursue aa goal, learn and master a skill, or just
discover without necessarily being forced or pushed by anyone. The level of
one’s motivation would also determine the extent of his or her ability to
accomplish desired tasks. Teachers then need to motivate their learners to
make them actively engaged in the learning process.

In lesson planning, motivation sets the positive mind set of the learners.
Positive remarks of teachers and parents also contribute to students’ high
motivation.

2. The learner’s creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity

all contribute to the motivation to learn.
There are two kinds of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic
motivation is manifested when an individual engages in an activity or task
that is personally gratifying. It is personally rewarding, and there is no
expectation for any external or tangible reward. Extrinsic motivation, on the
other hand, is its direct opposite. In this motivation, a person engages in a
task or activity to earn external rewards or to avoid punishments in some
situations.

A teacher’s most important way to motivate students to learn is to present

the value of that knowledge or concept to their life. Learning is not only
about getting good grades, but it is more of knowing why they need to learn
such and to what specific instances in their life that they would be able to use
them. Teaching strategies that allow personal choice and control,
collaboration, and creation for learners contribute to a more heightened
intrinsic motivation for learning.

3. Acquisition of sophisticated knowledge and skills requires extensive

learner’s effort and guided practice.
The learners’ motivation to learn is also partnered by their extended efforts.
Teachers facilitate learning opportunities and experiences that encourage
learners to exert time and effort and at the same time commitment and
enthusiasm toward a task they have to do and a concept they have to learn.
It is through the teachers’ encouragement that they will have to do tasks with
quality and not just for compliance’s sake.
 Application

1. In a three-paragraph essay, explain the cognitive, metacognitive, motivation,

and affective factors of psychological learner-centered principles of learning
in your own words. In your essay, cite at least two classroom situations that
apply two principles of these factors.

Assessment

I. Read and analyze the following statements. Answer YES if you agree and
NO if you don’t agree. Support your answer.

1. The motivation of a learner from the urban community is similar to

that from the rural area. 10 pts.

2. A teacher who facilitates learning outcomes becomes the main source

of knowledge in every lesson in class. 10 pts.

II. Discuss the following and support with examples.

1. Variety is a spice of life. How is this statement applicable in the
selection of instructional strategies, motivational strategies, and
affective strategies? 30 pts.

III. In your own words, give the meaning of the following terms: 5 pts. for
each term
1. Learning
2. Learning theories
3. Learner-centered principles

IV. Give and discuss the different types of learning. 35 pts.

 References

Brawner, D. G. (2018). Facilitating learner-centered teaching. Quezon City: Adriana

Publishing Co., Inc.

Bulusan et al. (2019). Facilitating learner-centered teaching. Manila: Rex Book Store,

Inc.

Gagné, R. M. (1985) The conditions of learning, New York: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston.

Gopnip, A. (2016). The carpenter and the gardener. What the new science of child

development tells us about the relationship between parents and children.

London: Bodley Head.

Kelly, L. (2002). What is learning … and why do museums need to do something

about it? A paper presented at the Why Learning? Seminar, Australian

Museum/University of Technology Sydney, 22 November. Retrieved from

https://australianmuseum.net.au/uploads/documents/9293/what%20is%20le
arning

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge.

https://infed.org/mobi/learning-theory-models-product-and-process/
 UNIT I: Understanding Learning
Lesson 2: Learning Principles on Development,
Social, and Individual Differences

Introduction
In the early 1990s, the American Psychological Association (APA)
appointed a group, a Task Force on Psychology in Education to conduct
further studies in both psychology and education (Bulusan et al., 2019). This group
has the aim of enhancing the current understanding of educators on the nature of
the learners about the teaching and learning process in order to make learning more
meaningful to all learners.

The 14 learner-Centered Psychological Principles are categorized as follows:

1) cognitive and metacognitive factors; 2) motivational and affective; 3)
developmental and social; and 4) individual difference factors. All these principles
influence the teaching and learning process (APA, 1997; Bulusan et al., 2019). The
first two principles were already discussed in Lesson 1. In this Lesson, we will discuss
the developmental and social factors as well as the individual difference factor.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Lesson, you should have:

1. explained the learning principles on development and social factors, as well

as principles on individual differences that influence learning;
2. recognized classroom instances that apply the learning principles related to
the development and social factors and individual differences; and
3. apply the principles learned in classroom-specific situations.

Activity

Recall an instance that you interacted with someone who possesses wit and
brilliance. Describe the interaction with this person and narrate how this particular
person had influenced your own thinking.
 Analysis

Do you think social interactions and communication with others are important
factors in learning? Discuss your answer.

Abstraction

According to Bulusan et al. (2019), development and social factors as well as

individual differences are considered critical factors in the capacity of learners to
engage in learning. These principles include the following:

1. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities for

learning.
The developmental stage where the learner is in must be considered when
planning for activities for learning. Bulusan et al. (2019) emphasized that
learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Teachers’ must know the physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains
of the learners before they plan for learning activities, materials, and
assessment. Often, learners do not learn well because there is a mismatch
between the learning activity and the learners’ developmental stage.

Teachers should look into the readiness of the learners through observations,
diagnostic tools, authentic assessments, and the like. All of these will help to
create learning contexts and environment.

2. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,

and communication with others.
One’s interactions with other people contribute much to his/her learning.
Associating with people whose ideas are brilliant would also enhance one’s
understanding. In the 21st Century, collaboration is a very important skill.
Working with others is a must. The classroom must provide for opportunity
for students to work as a group. This is a simulation of the real world.

According to Bulusan et al. (2019), when learners work with their peers and
classmates, they learn to appreciate and respect diversity. They practice their
listening skills and at the same time consider each other’s perspectives and
contributions on the task to be completed. When adequately facilitated by the
teacher, this ability contributes to a positive and healthy learning such as
respect for each other’s opinions, give-and-take relationships, and taking
 responsibility for assigned tasks to develop the interpersonal relationships of
the learners.

3. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities that

are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Diversity is a normal condition in society. Learners have to understand the
concept of diversity in order for them to develop the value of tolerance and
the concept of co-existence. In school therefore, learners have to be given
lessons and activities that will enable them to realize that the world is
diverse. The learning environment is the best example where diversity is
manifested between and among learners. Each learner has his or her learning
style, intelligence, potential, skills, talents, learning preferences, as well as
cognitive abilities, which are the effects of both experience and heredity.
Theories on multiple intelligences, learning styles, and differentiated
instructions are all to be considered when planning the delivery of lessons.
Teachers assist and support their learners in identifying their most effective
learning style, dominant intelligence, skills, and potentials, and help them
identify the ways and means on how they can use them to maximize
learning.

Bulusan et al. (2019) believe that current trends in teaching encourage

teachers to apply concepts on multicultural teaching, differentiated instruction
(DI), and the Universal Design for Learning (UDL). All these principles
support the premise that teachers should be creative, innovative, and
supportive of the individual differences of their learners.

4. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,

cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
Bulusan et al. (2019) emphasize that multicultural teaching encourages
teachers to consider their learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds. Language can be a barrier in learning when learners cannot
speak the language of instruction and the instructional material is not also
related to their social background. Lessons should be simplified and
contextualized or localized. Learners may appreciate learning when lessons
are closely related to their environment.

Culture makes one person unique from other people. Learners differ in many
ways from each other. Students should not feel discriminated or ridiculed
because of their uniqueness as individuals. When each one feels valued,
accepted and appreciated for what he/she is, each has the affirmation of
his/her own worth. This feeling contributes to a positive self-concept and
leads to a wholesome learning environment.

5. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing

the learner as well as the learning progress – including diagnostic,
process and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning
process.
 Bulusan et al. (2019) further emphasize that assessment and evaluation are
essential parts of the teaching and learning process. The results of
assessments conducted are used to gauge the learners’ strengths and
weaknesses. Teachers can also determine the kind of support and scaffold
that learners need. This process also includes knowing which instructional
materials would best assist the learners for better school performance.

Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it is formative or

summative, results should be used as a means of improving the teachers’
strategies and techniques in teaching. Low results may not always be
attributed to students’ negligence and difficulties but may also be because
the teacher’s strategy is not effective during the delivery of the lesson.

Application

Cite classroom situations or practices that violate (do not observe) each of the
five principles discussed above.

Assessment

Put a check mark (/) before each item if the teaching practice satisfies the
development and social factors, and individual differences principles of
learning; put an X mark (X) if not. Justify your answer (explain why you put /
or X). (5 pts. Each – 2 pts for the correct answer and 3 pts for the
justification).
______1. A teacher varies the level of difficulty of the same task for bright and slow

learners.

______2. A teacher allows a learner in Social Science to explain the answer to the

question in the Mother Tongue in which the learner is fluent and the

class understands.

_______3. Mr. Ramos asks far-sighted learners to be seated in front.

_______4. Mrs. Juanico tolerates the minor misbehavior of a learner.

_______5. Miss Cruz discourages the use of local materials in the Art projects of her

learners.
________6. A teacher cites cultural practices of the students as examples for

learning.

________7. Mr. Watson asks the fast learners to coach or mentor their classmates

who need assistance.

________8. Miss Paz tells Rama, the class singer, to enroll in the Special program for

the Arts track.

________9. Girlie was told by the teacher to concentrate on academics, not on the

school paper assignment.

________10. The Science teacher asks for the help of the school nurse to explain

fertilization.

References

Bulusan et al. (2019). Facilitating learner-centered teaching. Manila: Rex Book

Store, Inc.
 UNIT I: Understanding Learning
Lesson 3: Knowledge Transmission versus
Knowledge Construction

Introduction

Many have referred to the modern world economy as a “knowledge economy,”

in which the possession of knowledge is far less important than the creative uses of
knowledge. In this knowledge economy, the development of new knowledge is the
greatest driver of innovation. In fact, most living-wage jobs today demand content-
area expertise, but also the ability to apply knowledge to new situations and new
problems. More than at any other time in history, knowledge is at our fingertips,
especially through Internet-connected mobile computing devices and smartphones.
And while the Internet is not all-knowing, it is indisputable that virtually any fact,
figure, procedure, or resource can be located almost instantly by just about anyone.
Students are constructing knowledge when they apply critical thinking to go beyond
knowledge reproduction by generating ideas and understandings that are new to
them (WCSD 21st Century Learning, n.d.).

Teaching students for mere recall of facts and mastery of procedures therefore
seems a narrow outcome for twelve years of schooling. Preparing students with
knowledge, and the ability to construct further knowledge through critical and
applied thinking (what some call deep learning), is a key feature of the new
outcomes-based curriculum and will better position our students as productive
contributors to a knowledge economy (WCSD 21st Century Learning, n.d.).

This lesson will enable you to be reminded of your own purpose for learning. It
is not for you to simply accumulate facts and information, but in the end, to
construct knowledge out of the many materials that you have read. The skill that you
must develop is not memorizing terms and concepts, but utilizing these terms and
concepts to your own advantage. Yes, this is the demand of the 21st Century. You
become active learners only if you can make use of the knowledge that you have
gained to create new knowledge that may be utilized by yourself and the rest of the
members of the society, as well.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Lesson, you should have:

1. Differentiated knowledge transmission from knowledge construction;

 2. State the reasons why there should be a shift in learning from transmission to
construction;
3. Planned instruction that includes opportunities for students to construct
knowledge.

Activity

Look for the meaning of the words “transmit” and “construct”. In your own
words, discuss how knowledge may be transmitted and how it may be constructed.

Analysis

Why do learners need to construct new knowledge out of what have been
transmitted to them? Discuss your answer.

Knowledge Transmission
From this perspective, teaching is the act of transmitting knowledge from Point
A (teacher’s head) to Point B (students’ heads). This is a teacher-centered approach
in which the teacher is the dispenser of knowledge, the arbitrator of truth, and the
final evaluator of learning. A teacher’s job from this perspective is to supply
students with a designated body of knowledge in a predetermined order. Academic
achievement is seen as students’ ability to demonstrate, replicate, or retransmit this
designated body of knowledge back to the teacher or to some other measuring
agency or entity. From this perspective standardized tests are considered to be an
apt measure of students’ learning. While there are specific instances when this
approach is useful, there is little research support for this as a general approach to
teaching and learning (Johnson, 2015).

Knowledge Construction
Hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. - Chinese Proverb
You don't understand anything until you learn it more than one way. - Marvin Minsky
Do not confine your children to your own learning for they were born in another
time. - Hebrew Proverb
Education needs to be geared toward the HANDLING of data rather than the
ACCUMULATION of data. - David Berlo
What is knowledge construction?
The generation, or thoughtful creation, of new ideas and understandings lies at
the heart of knowledge construction. By focusing on the process of creating ideas
and carefully considering their value, we can become more skilled at thinking
critically and creatively. But, how do students thoughtfully create, or generate, new
understandings? And how can we expect our students to regularly come up with new
ideas? In the context of learning, it is important that we think of “new” ideas and
understandings as those that are “new to me” (just as when I purchase a pre-owned
vehicle it is “new to me”). When we encourage students to generate new ideas, we
are not concerned with how earth-shattering the ideas are; we are far more
interested in the process by which students generate these ideas. For instance, a
student who has created and tested a mathematical strategy is far more likely to
have developed a deep, transferable understanding than a student who has
observed a few worked solutions and completed the odd-numbered problems on
page 413. Knowledge construction cannot be achieved when students merely
reproduce what they have already learned (WCSD 21st Century Learning, n.d.)..

How to plan instruction that includes opportunities for

students to construct knowledge
Source: WCSD 21st Century Learning (n.d.)
If knowledge construction is a process by which students generate ideas and
understandings, the focus of classroom instruction should be on helping students to
learn and experience this process. The activities should give students more
opportunity to construct ideas, connect them to other content, and internalize
understandings. Activities that require students to generate ideas typically include
one (or more) of the following:

• Interpretation – means drawing inferences beyond the literal meaning. For

instance, students might read a description of a historical period and infer why
people who lived then behaved as they did.

• Analysis – means identifying relationships among the parts of a whole. Students

might investigate local environmental factors to determine which are most likely to
affect migrating birds.

• Synthesis – means identifying the relationships among two or more ideas.

Students might compare and contrast perspectives from multiple sources.

• Evaluation – means judging the quality, credibility, or importance of data, ideas, or

events.

Students might read several accounts of an event to determine which they find
most credible. Importantly, the generation of new ideas and understandings cannot
be achieved by following procedures students already know. When an activity
requires students to devise procedures themselves, the activity qualifies as
knowledge construction.

An activity requires some knowledge construction when students go beyond

reproducing knowledge to generate ideas or understandings that are new to them.
Key considerations:

• Most activities that require some knowledge construction ask students

to interpret, analyze, synthesize, or evaluate information or ideas.

• Most activities that require some knowledge construction ask students

to devise procedures for conducting their own work. Practicing procedures students
already know, or following a prescribed set of steps does not qualify as knowledge
construction.

Students apply their knowledge when they use knowledge they have
constructed to support another knowledge construction task in a new context. Doing
so deepens students’ understanding of content because they must apply their
understanding in a different situation. Students must consider their knowledge and
ideas from a different point of view—leading to transfer of learning and abstract
thinking.

Key considerations:

• To qualify as a new context, the two contexts must differ substantially

from each other. For instance, students who constructed knowledge about the
principles of heat by studying the Earth’s core might apply this new knowledge to a
study of Jupiter.

• To qualify as an application of knowledge, students should apply

knowledge in a different way in the new context. For example, students might write
a persuasive essay for an academic audience, then use their constructed knowledge
about persuasion to re-write the article as a newspaper column for a general
audience.

Application

A. Identify if each is an example of requiring some knowledge

construction. Does this activity require some knowledge
construction? Answer with “YES” or “NO”.
1. Students write a paper describing the crime a character committed.
2. Students are merely describing information they have collected.
3. Students use details in a story to infer the reasons why a character committed a
crime.
4. Students are using inferences to go beyond the literal information they have
collected to construct an argument about why a character behaved a certain
way.
5. Students search the Internet for several YouTube videos showing different ways
to solve a mathematical problem, then write a description of each method.
6. Students search the Internet for several YouTube videos showing different ways
to solve a mathematical problem, then write a paper comparing and contrasting
the merits of each method.
7. Students are collecting information, and evaluating the information by
constructing a judgment of its relative merits.
8. Groups of students follow a set of written instructions to build a tissue-paper
balloon in preparation for a school-wide launch.
9. Students are following a pre-existing process, which they cannot modify.
10. Groups of students are given a set of criteria for a finished tissue-paper balloon,
and access to an Internet search engine, in preparation for a schoolwide launch.

B. Identify if each is an example of students being required to apply

their knowledge in a new context. (Note: To qualify as applying
knowledge in a new context, the learning activity must also meet all
the requirements of constructing knowledge.) Are students required
to apply their knowledge in a new context? Answer with a “YES” or
“NO”.
1. Students analyze demographic statistics from their hometown and then
analyze demographic statistics from a second location.
2. Students do not apply their knowledge from analyzing demographic statistics
to any new activity; they simply repeat the same activity with a different set
of data.
3. Students analyze demographic statistics from their hometown and then use
their understanding of population trends to develop a plan for an upcoming
housing development project.
4. Students apply their knowledge from analyzing demographic statistics in
order to develop a housing plan; this step requires further analysis.
5. Students examine photos enlarged at different sizes to develop an
understanding of similarity and then describe their understanding
6. Students do not apply their knowledge from evaluating shapes to any new
domain; they simply articulate that knowledge.
7. Students in drama class analyze the characters in a play to learn about
character development, then use a digital camera and Movie Maker to create
their own one act play demonstrating character development.
8. Students apply their knowledge from designing and conducting water quality
tests to select an appropriate water filtration system, which forces them to
look at what they have learned in a new way and deepen their knowledge.
9. Students design and execute a procedure for testing the qualities of the tap
water at their school. Students conduct the test, then redesign the procedure
iteratively until they have accurate data.
10. Students in drama class analyze the characters in a play to learn about
character development and then write an essay about what they learned.
 Assessment

1. What is knowledge construction? How does it differ from knowledge transmission?

2. What are the reasons for the need to shift learning from transmission to
construction?

3. Give at least 5 activities in the classroom that provides opportunities for learners
to construct knowledge.

References

Johnson, A. (2015). Three views of teaching: Transmission, transaction, and

Transformation. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/three-views-

teaching-transmission-transaction-andrew-johnson

Retrieved from

file:///C:/Users/URDC/Downloads/KC%20Planning%20Instruction%20for%2021st%2

0Century%20Learners%20v2%20-%203%20Knowledge%20Construction.pdf