LINGUISTICS

Linguistics

- The science of language (Robins 1980)

- The scientific study of language (Lyons 1981)

- The study of language as a system of human

communication (Richards 1992)
 THE NATURE and
CHARACTERISTICS of
LANGUAGE
 Language Defined

Language is a system of communication
 consisting of sounds, words, and grammar, or
the system of communication used by people in
a particular country or type of work.
 Language Defined

Language is a system of arbitrary

vocal symbols by means of which a
social group cooperates.
(Trager and Bloch 1942)
 Language Defined

A language is an arbitrary system of

articulated sounds made use of by a group
of humans as a means of carrying on the
affairs of society.
(Francis 1958)
 Language Defined

Language is a system of arbitrary

vocal symbols used for human
communication.
(Wardhaugh 1982)
 Characteristics of Language
1. Creative
2. Arbitrary
3. Shared
4. Dynamic
5. Composed of FORM, MEANING, and USE
6. Systematic
 Language is creative.
Set of sounds
Set of words
Set of sentences

They were never said before but they are

grammatical and have meaning.
 Language is arbitrary.
Burmese:
English: taykong
chair

Latin: Filipino:
cathedra upuan

Spanish: Swedish
silla : stul
We do not know the basis for naming objects,
actions, and attributes the way we name them.
 Language is shared.
Would you like
Sure! some more
coffee, babe?

Great! Make sure

you get me a
mocha Latte while
you’re at the coffee
house.

-Café Con Leche

By Charlos Gary
 Language is shared.
In order to understand each other, speakers
of a language must agree regarding the meaning
of a particular construction (such as a sentence),
and the purpose or function of a particular
utterance.

>Language is systemic.
>Language is a social phenomenon.
 Language is dynamic.
Hebrew 1:1
New Living Translation (1996)
“Long ago God spoke
many times and in many
ways to our ancestors
through the prophets. And
now in these final days, he
has spoken to us through
his Son.”
Hebrew 1:1
King James Version (1611)
“God, who at sundry times
and in divers manners
spake in time past unto
the fathers by the
prophets, hath in these
last days spoken unto us
by his Son.”
 Language is composed of FORM,
MEANING, and USE.
Form is a perceptible part of a language.
spoken word
written word
signed word
Meaning is the idea or function triggered in the
mind of a speaker and a listener.

Use refers to a particular function of a particular

utterance.
 Language is systematic.

Language follows an orderly, proper

system for arranging sounds, groups of
sounds, words, sentences, utterances, and
even paragraphs.
 Language is systematic.
No limit to the length or number of sentences:

• This is the house.

• This is the house that Jack built.
• This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack
built.
• This is the dog that worried the cat that killed
the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house
that Jack built.
Very long sentences are theoretically

possible, but they are highly

improbable.
LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE
Linguistic competence (what you know)
- knowledge necessary to produce
sentences of a language
Linguistic performance (how you use)
- actual speech production and
comprehension
- applying the knowledge
LANGUAGE & THE BRAIN

Neurolinguistics: The study of

how language is represented
and processed in the brain
 THE HUMAN BRAIN
• The brain is composed of neurons, nerve cells that
are the basic information processing units of the
nervous system.
• The cerebral cortex is the gray wrinkled mass that
sits over the rest of the brain and accounts for
language representation and processing.
• The longitudinal fissure separates the left and right
hemispheres of the brain.
• The corpus callosum is the bundle of nerve fibers
that connects the two hemispheres.
FUNCTIONS of the BRAIN HEMISPHERES
• In terms of muscle movement, each hemisphere is
responsible for half of the body – contralateral
responsibilities.
– Right hemisphere -> left side of body
– Left hemisphere -> right side of the body
• In terms of higher cognitive functions, the hemispheres
are lateralized –
– Left hemisphere -> analytic tasks
• Math, Language
– Right hemisphere -> recognition of complex patterns
• Faces, Melodies
 LATERALIZATION
• Specialization of brain functions in either left or right
hemisphere of the brain
• Said to occur around puberty
• More pronounced with right-handed people than left-
handed people
– RH people exhibit language difficulties with damage
to the right hemisphere
– LH people show language representation in both
hemispheres
• Said to contribute to differences between children and
adults with respect to second language learning
 APHASIA
A language deficit caused by damage to the brain,
often be a stroke or an accident
• Nonfluent (motor) aphasia – front of left cortex
– results in either slow effortful speech or complete
speechlessness
– Broca’s aphasia –
• Speech is very halting
• Function words are omitted (it, is, to, a, etc.)
• Pronunciation is simplified (spoon > poon, etc.)
• Inflectional endings are omitted (running > run, etc.)
– Broca’ aphasics are aware of their language deficit
 APHASIA
• Fluent (sensory) aphasia – rear of left cortex
– No difficulty producing language
– Great difficulty selecting, organizing and
monitoring language
– Wernicke’s aphasia
• Generally unaware of their deficit
• Patient rarely makes any sense

YouTube - Wernicke's and Broca's Aphasia

 VISUAL LANGUAGE
• Deafness is not a language
impairment.
• Language vs. speech
– Language = an abstract cognitive system
– Speech = an action using the vocal-
auditory mode
• Deafness requires a language in a
different (i.e., non-vocal) mode
 PROSODY
In spoken languages, intonation affects sentence
meaning. Rising intonation often indicates a
yes-no question.
John fed the cat.
John fed the cat?
In signed languages, facial expressions have the
same function.
A yes-no question is accompanied by a raised
brow.
 PRONOUNS
The signer first signs the person or object being
discussed, then points or gazes to a point in
space in front of his or her body.

When the signer wants to refer again in the

conversation to the person or object, the signer
points to that location.

This is the equivalent of the spoken he/she/it,

him/her/it, etc.
 STRESS & COMPOUNDING
• In spoken English, the stress pattern of a compound word
distinguishes it from a mere combination of its components.

– BLACK BIRD vs. BLACKbird

• In ASL, the equivalent to vocal stress is duration; the

second element in a compound is always stressed – the first
is signed quicker.

– BLUE SPOT vs. blueSPOT

 ASL SOCIOLINGUISTICS
• Dialect differences exist,
– due to geographic isolation
– ‘accents’ as well as vocabulary differences
• Borrowing from English exists, due to
– Bilingualism
– Large specialized vocabulary of English
– Linguistic oppression against the deaf
– Struggle between pro-English & pro-ASL factions
among the deaf
 SL NEUROLINGUISTICS
Deaf people who suffer damage to the left hemisphere of their
brains will, like hearing people, suffer from aphasia- they
may have slow awkward signing (Broca’s aphasia) or may
produce ‘sign salad’ (Wernicke’s aphasia)
Damage to the right hemisphere frequently results in the loss
of some spatial functioning. Patients asked to draw a clock,
for example, may draw only a semicircle, neglecting the left
side.
Deaf people who suffer damage to the right hemisphere of
their brains will not lose their ability to sign.
Conclusion: Sign language is controlled by the same regions
of the brain that control spoken language, not by the visuo-
spatial centers.
American Sign Language
 Pair Work
• In your first essay, you are asked to describe
your strengths and weaknesses as a critical
thinker, providing specific exam[ples to
illustrate. In pairs, describe to your partner the
situation you are planning to write about.