B.Methods of Linguistic
The remarkable cave-wall paintings
Anthropology
-What linguistic anthropology is
concerned with are the consequences of
the process that led to language.
-Because linguistic anthropologists try to
view language from the very broad base
of anthropology, their research interests
are correspondingly comprehensive.
Linguistics
-The scientific study of language.
-It refers to the analytical study of
language,to reveal its structure, the
different kinds of language units, and the
rules according to which these units are
put together to produce stretches of
speech.
Linguistic Anthropology
-The study of language in its biological
and sociocultural contexts.
The term SOCIETY is frequently used
almost interchangeably with the term
CULTURE, and the “sociocultural”
points out their interconnection.
Statements from Linguistic
Anthropology:
1.In Javanese, the choice of words is
determined by such characteristics of
the speaker and the addressee as their
age,gender, wealth, education, and
occupation; and the more refined the
level of speech, the slower, softer, and
more even the presentation will be.
2.
and carvings of the Upper Paleolithic
Cro-Magnons serve as an indirect proof
that these pre-historic people had a full-
pledged language.
 Research concerning the cultures
and language of contemporary
societies is for the most part
conducted in the field.
 The anthropologist exposure in
one community can be repeated
and need more time.
 When studying language of
different community or country we
need to select and study it
carefully.
 The language anthropologists
need both knowledge of the
language and fair acquaintance
with the culture.
 Data for the analysis can be
obtained if the informant is well
spoken in his or her own native
language and remained good and
useful for the goal of research.
 In eliciting data, that is in
obtaining from informants word,
utterances, text and judgement,
concerning their language.
 The fieldwork should strive to
collect materials that are
dialectally uniform and spoken in
a natural tone or voice at a
normal rate of speed.
 During initial stages of fieldwork,
Eliciting isba accomplished by
asking the informant relatively
simple questions.
  Linguistic Anthropologists are of
course interested in much more
than just the sounds, grammar
and vocabulary of language.
A.Preparatory stage
B.Field research stage
C.Field research stage
D.Possiblesources of tension and stress
E.The post-field-trip stage
C.Fields of Linguistics
(Phonology and Morphology)
Phonetics
- is the scientific study of speech
sounds.
Phonology  distribution of the sounds.
- the study of the organization and
distribution of those sounds.  2 types of sounds
- the pattern of sounds in a language
and across languages.
Importance of knowledge of language
to Anthropologists
- To learn about structure
- To  be able to write it down
- To record words
- To deliver right utterances
- Learn about traditional narratives
Important reasons for a more
systematic and specialized approach:
Converting to written form - To
accomplish writing, one must learn the
principles of phonetic transcription.  consonants, 7 digraphs, 5 ‘r-controlled’
Grammatical Structure - Each
language has a structure of its own that
cannot be analyzed or grasped in terms
of the investigator's own language.
Dependency on spelling
The sound sh of shy is written in English
in twelve additional ways: chef,
conscience, fuschia, issue, mansion,
nauseous, ocean, potion, pshaw, schist,
sugar and suspicion. 
The sun's rays meet and the sons raise
meat. (homophones)
My mother tongue
- It is known to languages that we
cannot have the same number of
sounds and cannot have the same
 
Voiced sounds - are those that make
our vocal cords vibrate when they are
produced. 
Voiceless sounds - are produced from
air passing through the mouth at
different points.
Phonemes
- Is a unit of sound that can distinguish
one word from another in a particular
language.
Phonemes in English
- In English, there are 44 phonemes, or
word sounds that make up the
language. They’re divided into 19
sounds, 5 long vowels, 5 short vowels, 2
‘oo’ sounds, 2 diphthongs.
TABLE 3.4 Typical Vowel Phonemes
in American English
Phonemic Symbol Example
sound patterns /sɪn/ (sin) and /sɪŋ/
(sing) are two separate words that are
distinguished by the substitution of one
phoneme.
What is PROSODIC FEATURES ?
- It is relating to rhythm and intonation.

Single vowels Prosody

Study of all elements of Language that
/i/ bead contribute toward acoustic and rhythmic
effects.
/i/ bid
Under segmental are:
/e/ bade (rhyming with made) VOWEL, CONSONANTS AND
DIPHTHONGS.
/ε/ bed
Speech
/æ/ bad Speech features that accompany or are
added over a segmental.
// (unstressed = /©/) bud
Under suprasegmentals are:
/a/ body STRESS,PITCH AND INTONATION,
JUNCTURE.
/u/ boot
Stress
/u/ book To give extra loudness that given into a
particular syllable or word.
/o/ bode
Stress Strong Symbol (`)
/ɔ/ bought Example:
Fràncise
Diphthongs Intèrior
/ai/ bite Unsèe
/au/ bout
/ɔi/ boy/ Two General Types of stress
Word Stress – monosyllabic words and
BACKGROUND multisyllabic words
- In most dialects of English, with the
notable exception of the West Midlands
and the north-west of England, the
  Sentence Stress – stress is
shifted to another word. Example:
1. I can’t do it
2. I can’t do it
3. I can’t do it
Pitch
Highness or lowness of the voice.
4 tunes or level in English:
1-Low
2-normal
3-high
4-extra high
Intonation
Variation of pitch in the spoken
language.
There are two types of intonation
Rising-Falling Intonation
Rising-Intonation
Etic and Emic
History:
-Etic and emic derive from
phonetic and phonemic.
-It was coined by linguist and
antropologist
Kenneth L. Pike(1920-2000) .
Similarities
-these two are both investigation
approaches.
-Etic
-outsiders perspective.
-Knowledge and interpretation
that pertain to generalizations
about human behavior and are
held to be true across cultures.
-studies cross cultural
differences.
Emic
-insiders perspective.
-pertains to the knowledge and
interpretation within a culture that
is created and used by individuals
based upon their customs,
beliefs, and behavior.
-from an emic account involves
an individual within a culture
describing a customs beliefs or
behavior.
-fully studies one culture with no
cross cultural focus.
Etic and Emic in other fields.
-other scholar apply these
concepts to the field of their
specialization.
Example:
In ARCHIOLOGY(James F.
Deetz 1930-200)
-Factemes and allofacts
In FOLKLORIST(Alan Dundes
1934-2005)
-motifeme and allomotif.
Phonetics
- how we may view a foreign
language and all of the sounds
they making in that language.
- phonetic description is a
particular language is an attempt
account for all audible or
perceivable
differences among the sound of
that language.
Example
 The phonetic transcription of of
english words would be register the
difference between the p sounds of pike
and spike (the first, [ph], is aspirated
whereas the second, [p], is not).
Phonemics
-native speakers use.
-Most of the writing system is
based on phonemics.
Example
Phonemics would be
simply /p/.
1.For Ethnographic research to
be conducted as participant
observation, anthropologists
should have a working knowledge
of the language spoken by the
people they study. for linguistic
anthropologist acquantance with
methods of linguistic analysis and
appreciation of structural
differences among language
essential.
2. Speech sounds are produced
by various modification of the
vocal channel as outgoing
airstream passes between the
vocal cords and the lips. The two
main classes of speech sounds
are vowels and consonance,
each siting of various types
according to the place and
manner of articulation. Vowels
are usually associated with
accent which may take the form
of stress pitch, or combination of
both.
3. Analysis of the sounds of
language involves determining
which phonetic differences are
contrastive, that is phonemic([ba]
and [p]) and allophonic ([p] and
[ph] )
4. The phonemic and phonetic
analitical approaches have been
extended from the study of
language to nonlinguistic aspects
of culture under the term etic and
emic.
D.The Nonverbal
Communication
-refers to the transmission of
signals accomplished by means
other than spoken or written
words.
-Used broadly, the term includes
bodily gestures, facial
expressions, spacing, touch, and
smell, as well as whistle, smoke-
signal, and drum "languages,"
Semiotics -The study of the
properties of signs and symbols
and their functions in
communication.
Characteristics of vocal
communication considered
marginal or optional and therefore
excludable from linguistic
analysis are referred to as
paralanguage.
The most common paralinguistic
features are usually assigned to
three categories.
Voice qualifiers have to do with
the tone of voice and pacing of
speech, and they include
variations in volume or intensity.
Voice characterizers that
accompany speech or, more
precisely, through which one
talks.
Vocal segregates represented
for the most part by such extra
linguistic sounds (that is, sounds
not part of the phonemic system)
Kinesics
-The study of body language
-Students of kinesics take note of
several basic components , all of
which are associated facial
expression , eye contact, body
posture , and hand gestures .
Facial expressions signal a wide
range of emotions from pleasure ,
happiness , and pleasant surprise
to suspicion , sadness , fear ,
anger , disapproval , or disgust-
to list only the most common
feelings.
the nature of eye contact
between people in face-to-face
interaction berries not only from
culture to culture but also within
the same society.
Eye contacts therefore range all
the way from avoidance to the
look of a person who is in love.
Hand gestures are too many to
classify in this brief survey, and
two are mentioned to illustrate.
One purpose they serve is to
emphasize what is being said
and, two, handshaking as a
greeting can be accomplished in
a variety of methods.
Body posture conveys the
individual's attitude to the face-to-
face interaction he or she is
participating in:
During some ritual occasions , of
course , specific body postures
are expected or required for
example , kneeling , standing or
bowing.
Proxemics
the study of the cultural
patterning of the spatial
separation individuals maintain in
face-to-face encounters. The
distances individuals maintain
from one another depend on the
nature of their mutual
involvement and are culture
specific.
Whistle language
Among the various systems of
nonverbal communication , of
particular interest are those
speech surrogates that depend
on and are derived directly from
spoken language that some of
those language are produced in
the vocal tract the so-called
whistle speech.
Whistling as a means of
serviceable communication is not
very common, but it is known to
occur in such widely separated
areas of the world as Myanmar
(formerly Burma), Mexico, the
Canary Islands, the French
Pyrenees, Cameroon, and New
Guinea.
Under special circumstances , as
when the distance between two
Mazateco men is too great for
them to shout , they use whistle
speech.
Whistling is used to attract the
attention of another person by
sending his name or to exchange
information without interfering
with a simultaneous oral
conversation carried by on elders.
Sign language
Signing, that is, communicating
manually by sign language of
some kind, is undoubtedly at
least as old as speech
Sign languages used to the
exclusion of spoken language-for
example, by people born deaf-are
referred to as primary.
Regardless of the particular sign
language used, the majority of
signs are not transparently iconic.
Chereme refers to a set of
positions, configurations, or
motions that function identically in
a given sign language.
The Plains Indians of North
America used an elaborate sign
language to communicate with
members of other Plains tribes
whose languages they could not
understand.
E.THE DEVELOPMENT AND
EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
It is now generally accepted that
communication among members
of animal species is wide spread
and that most vertebrates
transmit information by acoustic
signals.
Communication and Its
Channels
Communication among members
of animal species is universal
because it is important to their
survival. It takes place whenever
one organism receives a signal
that has originated with another.
Model of communication uses
five components:
•Sender
•Message
•Channel
•Receiver
•Effect •Find mate
•Defend territory
COMMUNICATION AND ITS •Demonstrate their fitness
CHANNEL:
DOLPINS COMMUNICATION
•Whistles
•Acoustic channel - it is the •Clicking
most common and effective •Ecolocation
channel of human •Body language
communication.
•Optical channel - writings, Nonhuman Primates
gestures, and pictorial signs. -Refers to a group of mammals
•Tactile channel - received by composed of monkeys, apes,
the sense of touch. orangotan and etc.
•Olfactory channel - whenever
one wishes to communicate by How does Nonhuman Primates
the sense of smell. communicate?
•Hand Gestures
Communication among social •Body Postures
insects is a key aspect of their •Facial Expression
ability to maintain social and •Make various noises
caste structure.
1.VIKI
Communication Among Adopted in the late 1940s
Nonhuman Primates and other Keith J. Hayes and Catherine
Vertebrates Hayes
After 6 years, she learned the
Vertebrate words:
-Refers to an animal with a spinal Papa Mama Cup Up
cord surrounded by bone.
2.WASHOE
The Two Major Classes of
Birds Vocalization: Gestural language
Able to use more than 30 signs
BIRD CALLS after 2 years
•Alarm Calls Able to use more than 150 hand
•Contact Calls signs after 5 years.
•Flight Calls
•Begging Calls & etc. 3.SARAH

BIRD SONGS Learned write and read

Use plastic token of various
shapes, sizes and colors with a
representing word
1972,acquired a vocabulary of
130 terms
When Does Communication
System become language?
-When people using internet,
Watching TV, using telephone,
etc.
Design Features of Language
In the 1960s, Charles F. Hockett
and others proposed a set of
“design features” of language
properties that characterize
human speech.
The following are the
properties that Hockett argued
characterized human language
•Vocal auditory Channel
•Broadcast transmission and
directional reception
•Transitoriness/Rapid fading
•Interchangeability
•Total feedback
•Specialization
•Semanticity
•Arbitrariness
•Discreteness
•Displacement
•Productivity/openess
•Cultural (or traditional)
transmission
•Duality of patterning
•Prevarication
•Reflexiveness
•Learnability
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
In his book dealing with the
biological foundation of language
(1967). Eric H. Lenneberg (1921-
1975) included an extended
discussion of language in the light
of evolution and genetics.
•Continuity Theory - holds that
speech must have ultimately
developed from primitive forms of
communication used by lower
animals and that its study is likely
to reveal that language evolved in
a straight line over time.
•Discontinuity Theory - holds
that human language must be
recognized as unique, without
evolutionary antecedents.
•Language as emergent/emerges
-"All language-processing
modules continue to perform their
older prelinguistic task and reveal
no special language-dedicated
adaptations.
•Language as innate
- "All language-processing
modules are either entirely novel,
or at the very least have been
heavily modified to perform their
novel linguistic tasks.
Polygenesis
Development from more than one
source.
Monogenesis
The theory that all language, or a
particular set of language,
oriented from a single source.
F.ACQUIRING LANGUAGES
LIFE WITH FIRST LANGUAGE,
SECOND LANGUAGE AND
MORE
What are the different stages of
first language acquisition?
A common point of reference
when discussing stages of
language acquisition is the stages
of first language acquisition that
nearly all babies go through.
• PRE-TALKING
• BABBLING
• HOLOPHRASTIC
• TWO-WORD
• TELEGRAPHIC
• MULTIWORD
What are the factors that affect
language acquisition?
1. Exposure to the New
Language
Exposure is the most
important factor in learning a new
language.
2. The Age of the Learner
The age of the learner is
an important factor in their ability
to master a new language.
3. The Learner’s Native
Language
A learner’s native
language plays a key role in their
ability to acquire a new language.
4. The Learner’s Motivation
Motivation is a very
important factor for the success
of any educational activity.
Theories Of Language
Acquisition
Behaviorist Psychology Theory
B.F. Skinner's theory of learning
says that a person is first
exposed to a stimulus, which
elicits a response, and the
response is then reinforced
(stimulus, response,
reinforcement).
Innatist Theory
Noam Chomsky stated the
Innatist theory. He mentioned that
children were born with the ability
to acquire language (innate). He
argued that language acquisition
of children be related to their
innate ability of biological
language acquisition device
(LAD).
Sociocultural Theory
Language is a direct result of the
symbols and tools that emerge
within a culture. An individual is
able to learn language through a
variety of social events, scenarios
and processes, which all result in
the acquisition of language
Neurolinguistics
Branch of linguistics concerned
with the role the brain plays in
language and speech processing
Language centers
•Broca's area-Language
production
•Wernicke's area-Language
comprehension
•Arcuate fasciculus-Connection
between Broca's area and
Wernicke's area
•Angular gyrus-Converts visual
stimuli into auditory stimuli, or
vice versa. Capacity to read and
write
Producing a spoken word
1.Wernicke's area - Accessing
the lexicon
2.Arcuate fasciculus - Phonetic
information
3.Broca's area - Interpreting the
received information
4. Motor cortex - Directing
the movement of muscles for
articulation
Hearing a word
1.Auditory cortex -Processing
received info by ears
2.Wernicke's area- Interpreting
the info and matching it to a
lexical entry
Reading a word
1.Visual cortex - Processing
received info by eyes
2.Angular gyrus - Associating
written form of word with lexical
entry
3.Wernicke’s area -Making
available the meaning and
pronunciation of word
Aphasia
Aphasia is an impairment of
language function due to
localized brain damage that leads
to difficulty in understanding
and/or producing linguistic forms.
•Broca's Aphasia
Is characterized by a substantially
reduced amount of speech,
distorted articulation and slow.
•Wernicke's Aphasia
The type of language disorder
that results in auditory
comprehension.
Dyslexia
The impairment of reading ability
Bilingual Brain
The bilingual brain is used to
handling two languages at the
same time. This develops skills
for functions such as inhibition,
switching attention, and working
memory.
Multilingual Brain
A key feature of multilingual
cognition is that two or more
languages can become activated
at the same time, requiring
mechanisms to control
interference.

The Social Aspects of
Multilingualism
Societal (or social)
multilingualism refers to countries
or communities where languages
have different functions and often
a different status.-“Societal
multilingualism” signifies the
linguistic diversity that can be
found in a country, a region or a
particular community.
Einar Haugen who most likely
coined the term code-switching,
defined it as "when a bilingual
introduces a completely
unassimilated word from another
language into his speech."
Carol Myers-Scotton broadened
the definition by saying that code-
switching "is the selection by
bilinguals or multilinguals of forms
from an embedded variety (or
varieties) in utterances... during
the same conversation."
Eyamba Bokamba distinguishes
code-switching and code-mixing:
"Code-switching is the mixing of
words, phrases and sentences
from two distinct grammatical
(sub) systems across sentence
boundaries within the same
speech event.
Diglossia
The use of two distinct varieties
of a language for two different
sets of functions. The common
language is the colloquial, or the
"low," variety (L).
A second, "high" variety (H), is
used in formal circumstances: It
is taught in schools and assumes
administrative, legal, religious,
and literary functions.
•The colloquial typically is learned
first and is used for ordinary
conversation with relatives and
friends or servants and working
persons, in cartoons, popular
radio and television programs,
jokes, traditional narratives, and
the like
•The formal variety, which carries
prestige, is taught in schools and
assumes most of the literary,
administrative, legal, and
religious functions.
G.LANGUAGE IN CONTRACT
AND LANGUAGE IN
VARIATION
Idiolects
An individuals speech variety.
The recognition of a person’s
voice alone because of the
combination of voice quality,
pronunciation grammatical usage
and choice of words
Dialects
The term dialect is an abstraction:
it refers to a form of language or
speech used by members of a
regional, ethnic, or social group.

Style
English was brought to North
America during the seventeenth
century by colonists from England
who settled along the Atlantic
coast from Maine to Georgia.
●The way individuals speak
varies not only according to their
regional and social dialects but
also according to context.
●The distinctive manner in which
people express themselves in a
particular situation is referred to
as style.
●Speech styles are thus
comparable to styles of dress.
Language Contact
Languages must have been in
contact as long as there have
been human being, people have
also often been in close proximity
with those who spoke languages
that were mutually unintelligible
Trade, travel, migration, war, in-
termarriage, and other
nonlinguistic causes have forced
different languages to come into
contact countless times
throughout history
When this occurs, several
things can happen over time
•languages can die- most
languages, though, die out
speakers become bilingual and
then begin to lose proficiency in
their traditional languages.
•new languages can develop, or
languages in contact can become
mixed in various ways
Pidgins
In sociolinguistics, “pidgin” refers
to a language variety that is no
one’s native language.
Pidgins have been created as the
mix of at least three languages.
It is also referred to as:
●“Contact language”
●“Contact vernacular”
Language contact can result in
the creation of a pidgin or
pidginization
They appeared in :
•East and west indies
•Africa
•The Americas
Contact
Languages are said to be “in
contact” if and when they are
used alternately by the person
1.RUSSENORK
Arctic coast of northern Norway
18th to early 20th century
vocabulary;
47% Norwegian, 39%
Russian, 14% other languages;
Dutch or possibly German,
English, Sami, French, Finnish,
and Swedish
2.TOK PISIN
Auxiliary language and has an
official status
Expanded pidgin
Papua New Guinea

The process of grammatical and
lexical reduction of a language
such as English or Navajo to a
pidgin, referred to as
pidginization.
The process of expansion of a
pidgin to other language functions
is referred to a creolization.
When creoles undergo a change,
moving in the direction of the
standard language in a process
known as decreolization.
•Basilect - the variety most
differentiated from the standard
and used by the members of the
rural working class.
•Acrolect - an urban variety
approaching the standard and
therefore seen as more
prestigious.
Derek Brickerton 's bioprogam
hypothesis (1981), this is, the
assumption that the human
species must have a biologically
innate capacity for language.
Language contact in the
contemporary world
•In spite of the dominance of
English, or the effects of
electronic mass media and the
internet which are supposedly
diluting some of the linguistic
difference among us, languages
are still in contact in very complex
ways.
•Choosing a lingua franca or a
pidgin, some have proposed
adopting an artificial or auxiliary
language to facilitate international
communication.
•Esperanto, already more than
100 years old, the most
widespread. While English, the
mother tounge of some 400
million speakers serving well over
a billion people in the world.
World of languages
•The world of languages is like a
big playground where people
from all over the world come to
talk and play with each other.
Just like how you have different
toys to play with, people have
different languages to talk in.
Some people speak English,
some speak Spanish, some
speak Chinese, and so on. It's
really cool because even though
we all speak different languages,
we can still understand each
other and have fun together
•the world of languages is vast
and diverse, and creoles are an
excellent example of language
evolution. Creoles offer a unique
insight into how languages have
developed and continue to evolve
over time. As populations
become more cosmopolitan, and
cultures continue to intermingle, it
is certain that more creoles will
emerge. The importance of
creoles in promoting intercultural
communication, social cohesion,
and national unity can not be
overemphasized.
H.The Ethnography of SUBCULTURE
Communication
• A complex learned pattern
of behavior and thought
-A comprehensive and interdisciplinary
that distinguishes various
approach to the study of language and
segments of society
communication as actions that transpire
(minorities, castes and the
in naturally occurring, everyday
like).
situations and interactions.
-The study of communication within the • By extension, this term is
background of social and cultural also used to refer
practices and beliefs. collectively to all those
who exhibit the
-First introduced by Dell Hymes in 1962.
characteristics of a
He described it in detail in his 1964
particular subculture.
article, "Introduction: Toward
Ethnographies of Communications." Language and speech are characterized
by uniformity. In general, a specific
-The term "ethnography of
language is linked to a specific society
communication" means the different
and multiple languages are linked to
features of an approach that is taken
multinational societies. But no language
toward understanding a language from
is ever uniform for all speakers in
an anthropological perspective.
society (people, communities, tribes).
-Originally termed "ethnography of
• It is important to remember
speaking," Hymes broadened it in 1964
that people who speak the
to include the non-vocal and non-verbal
same language are not
aspects of communication.
always members of the
SPEECH COMMUNITY AND RELATED same speech community.
CONCEPTS
• Most members of society,
A "speech community" is a group of even if they happen to live
people who share rules for conducting in the same town, belong
and interpreting at least one variety of to several ethnic
language or dialect. The term can be communities.
applied to a neighborhood, a city, a
Speech Area
region, or a nation.
 An area in which
The term "society" and "culture" in
speakers of different
anthropology are useful as general
languages share
concepts, but no society's culture is
speaking rules.
uniform for all its member.
Less frequently employed terms for
related concepts include language field,
speech field and speech network
(Hymes).
Language Field
• refers to all those
communities in which an
individual is able to
communicate adequately
by virtue of knowing the
languages and language
varieties serving the
communities.
Speech Field
• the concept of the speech
field parallels of the
language field but involves
the knowledge of rules for
speaking rather than
knowledge of languages.
Speech Network
• refers to linkages between
persons from different
communities who share
language varieties as well
as rules for speaking.
UNIT OF SPEECH BEHAVIOR
To distinguish among different levels of
speech activity, Hymes made use of
three terms for the ethnographic
analysis and description of speech
behavior— speech situation, speech
event, and speech act.
SPEECH SITUATION
• a context within which
speaking occurs—that is,
any particular set of
circumstances typically
associated with speech
behavior.
SPEECH ACT
• The minimal unit of speech
for purposes of
ethnographic analysis.
• Maybe a greeting,
apology, question,
compliment, self-
introduction, or the like.
SPEECH EVENTS
• The fundamental building
block of verbal interaction;
is composed of speech
acts that are followed by
one another in a
recognizable sequence
and are constrained by
social rules for the use of
speech.
• Examples of speech
events include
conversation, confession
to a priest, interview,
dialogue with a
salesperson, telephone
inquiry, and so on.
An alumni reunion can be used to
illustrate the three units of speech
behavior.
• SPEECH SITUATION:
The gathering itself is an example
of a speech situation: it has a
beginning and an end and usually
lasts only for part of one day; the
participants are restricted to former
members of a class and their
spouses or partners.
 • Within such a speech
situation, a number of speech
events invariably take place: for
example, one group may be
reminiscing about favorite teachers
and classroom antics; those in
another group may be giving brief
accounts of what they have been
doing since graduation or the last
reunion; and still, others may be
simply swapping jokes and stories.
SPEECH ACTS
Within these speech events, the
telling of a single joke or personal
experience is a speech act. Just as
native speakers of any language
are expected to produce sentences
that are grammatically acceptable
and meaningful, speech acts are
judged according to how
appropriate they are to any specific
speech situation or speech event.
COMPONENTS OF
COMMUNICATION
Hymes (1972) in his famous
ethnographic theory makes a
concept of speech component
wherein he used the word
SPEAKING as a mnemonic device.
(S) SETTING AND SPEAK
Setting refers to a particular time and
place where any communicative act or
event happens whereas scene refers to
the mood in which a communicative
event takes place.
(P) PARTICIPANT
Persons involved in speech events.
Sender
• The communicator or
source of information or
idea. Also known as the
speaker or addresser.
Receiver
• The person to whom a
message is directed.
Audience
• Anyone who may be
interested in or happens to
perceive (hear, see) the
message.
(E) ENDS
 It is the results or goals that will
be achieved by the participants in
a communication event.
(A) ACT SEQUENCE
 It is concerned with the form and
content of the conversation
expressed in the event of
utterance.
(K) KEY
• It includes the tone,
manner or spirit in which
act is done
TONE
the intonation of a
conversation such as
communication with a slow
pattern or quickly or in a
hurry. It also refers to high
or low intonation.
MANNER OR SPIRIT
 Associated with the
psychological condition of
participants involved
whether in relaxed or rigid
circumstances.
(I) Instrumentalist
A communication tool or
channel used in
communication such as face
to face communications with
participants using oral or
verbal communication
(N) NORMS
it includes two (2) norms of interaction.
This rule is closely related to the
participants.
RULES OF INTERACTION
• communicative activity is
guided by rules of
interaction. Under normal
circumstances, members
of a speech community
know what is and what is
not appropriate.
NORMS OF INTERPRETATION
• The judgement as to what
constitutes proper
interaction is of course
subject interpretation. The
norms of interpretation
vary from culture to culture
(G) GENRE
Refers to speech acts or events
associated with a particular
communicative situation and
characterized by a particular style, form
and content. In a speech event there are
several choices of use categories
whether poetry, chanting, prayer, and
advice.
SUBANUN DRINKING TALK
HOW TO ASK FOR A DRINK IN
SUBANUN
-The Subanun are swidden
agriculturists who live in the
mountainous interior of a
peninsula in the Philippine island
of Mindanao.
-It dealt only on with the drinking
of gasi, a fermented beverage
usually made of rice, manioc, and
maize, that was labeled as
"beer".
-The drinking of beer is required
activity limited to festive
gatherings occasioned by some
specific event by the participation
of several families.
-The beer is drunk with bamboo
straws from chinese jar
containing the fermented mash.
Drinking Encounter
• The first stage of the
drinking encounter
consists of tasting.
• Several rounds of tasting
are succeeded by
competitive drinking.
• Competitive drinking then
continues to a discussion-
beginning with trivial
gossip and proceeding to
subjects of current
concern.
 • To speak Subanun grammatically
and sensibly is not enough. In
order to become respected and
achieve a position of leadership
in subanun society, a person
must have the skill to "talk from
the straw" that is, one must know
what to say to whom and when,
in addition be able to use the
language creatively.
ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF
SPEECH
-A language is a system of
communication which consists of
a set sounds and written symbols
which are used by the people of a
particular country or region for
talking or writing.
-Attitude is a settled way of
thinking or feeling about someone
or something, typically one that is
reflected in a person's behavior.
-Speech is a human vocal
communication using language.
LANGUAGE ATTITUDES
-Are evaluative reactions to different
language varieties. they reflect to
different cognitive processes: social
categoration and stereotyping.
-Language attitudes are organized along
two evaluative dimentions: status (e.g.
intelligent, educated) and solidarity
(e.g. friendly, pleasant).
STANDARD VARIETIES
-Are those that adhere to codified norms
defining correct usage in terms of
grammar, pronunciation, and
vocabulary, whereas nonstandard
varieties are those that depart from such
norms in some manner (e.g,
pronunciation).
-Status attributions are based
primarilyon perceptions of
socioeconomic status. Because
standard varieties are tend to be
associated with dominant
socioeconomic groups within a given
society, standard speakers are typically
attributed more status than nonstandard
speaker. Solidarity attributions tend to
be based on in-group loyalty.
Language attitudes can be socialized
through various agents, including
educators, peers, family, and the media.
Because language attitudes are learned,
they are inherently prone to change.
Language attitudes may in response
shifts in intergroup relations and
government language policies, as well
as more dynamically as a function of the
social comparative context in which they
are evoked. Once evoked, language
attitudes can have myriad behavioral
consequences, with negative attitudes
typically promoting prejudice,
discrimination, and problematic social
interactions.
RECENT TRENDS IN ETHOGRAPHY
OF SPEAKING

-The methods of the ethnography of
speaking are increasingly applied even
in what is essentially linguistics (rather
than liguistically anthropological) inquiry.
-When field workers so applied these
methods, they make use of recorded
narrtives, monologues, or dialogues to
show how the syntactic patterns of
language are adjusted to principles of
culture-specific discourse.
• Jeffrey Heath discussed
this approch in his article
about clause structure in
Ngandi, a language now
spoken by only a very few
aborgines in southeastern
Arnhem Land in Nothern
Australia.
• In a simplified form, one of
the several examples with
which Heath illustrated his
discussion: Among many
speaker of english, such
as fillers er, uh, um used to
feel pauses or gaps in
discourse carry a stigma.
• The most ccommon of
what Heath termed a
"whatchamacallit"
element in Ngandi, the
noun jara, is fully
acceptables in any
stylesand its syntactic
prominence is attested by
its having derivational
forms.
• To linguist who would like
to analyze written
languages spoken by very
small out-of-the-way
societies. Ngandi
discourse structure might
as well appear highly
fragmented and
unpredictable.
• In papers dealing with
language use, the term
context has been
commonly employed to
denote the interrelated
condition under which
speech and other form of
communicative behavior
occur.
• There has recently been a
tendency to employ the
term contextualization
instead.
• Those features of the
settings are used that are
used are particular stage
of the interaction to aid in
the interpretation of the
content are signaled by
contextualization cues.
• To put it differently: When
two (or more) individuals
interact for even a
relatively short period of
time, the nature and
purpose of their verbal
exchange may abruptly
change as well as the
message content and
form, rules of interaction
and so forth.
I. LANGUAGE AND IDEOLOGY:
VARIATIONS IN CLASS, GENDER,
ETHNICITY, AND NATIONALITY
INTRODUCTION
-According to Mr. Franz Boas, there is
no relationship between language,
culture and race but in One’s language
and culture is an individuals choice.
Thus, differences in language can be
readily observed among people in the
same speech community.
Early sociolinguists and anthropologists
thought that such variety was analogous
to geographic dialects. That is, just as
differences in speech could result from
geographic isolation, social isolation due
to ethnicity, nationality or race could also
create linguistic variation. Even gender
could be a factor. Because although
women and men share the same space
geographically, they might live in
different social environments
SOCIAL CLASS
-A group of people within a society who
possess the same socioeconomic
status.
LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL CLASS
-It is how different social classes/groups
affect language use.
-One of the most obvious manifestations
of social class is found in language-
perhaps more so than personal
possessions, style, or place of
residence. For our purposes, we will
reduce class distinctions to differences
in economics, education, familial
prestige, and some other ways people
might rank themselves in society.
Speech differences can characterize
different eco mic or social tatus.
John Gumperz (1958)
-He spent 2 years in the Indian village of
Khalapor.
-The population is 5000 and was divided
into 31 groups of castes where none of
which has equal status.
-The use of language depends on their
social status.
Majority speech or standard had
contrast between single vowels /a/,
/u/and /o/ and in the corresponding
diphthong /ai/ui/oi/
-Sweeper caste only have simple
vowels.
-Shoemakers caste had /ə/
There were also some lexical
differences between the vocabularies of
the different castes. The larger castes
had special words for items of their
subcultures, such as food, clothing, and
etc.
In the United States, William Labov
conducted a well-known study of
sociolinguistic change-linguistic change
understood in the context of the society
in which it occurs. Laboy’s pioneering
work was concerned with the
relationship between the social status of
speakers in New York City and their
pronunciation of r sounds. The study
was conducted in some of the
department stores of the city in 1962.
The variation of the phonetic feature
under consideration ranged from the
absence of ( r ) altogether to its
presence in postvocalic position
SOCIOLINGUISTIC CHANGE
Is the study of the effects of any or all
aspects of society including cultural norms,
expectations and context on the way
language is used.
-Labov found that in New York City the
pronunciation of /r/ occurred and its
frequency of use depended on the
speakers’ membership to particular
socioeconomic status groups, i.e. social
classes.
-In order to study the pronunciation of /r/ by
the employees of the three department
stores, Labov asked questions which should
elicit the lexical items (‘fourth floor’)
containing the desired accent feature in the
employees’ speech:
1st question: “Where can I find the lamps?”
Elicited answer: “fourth floor.”
2nd question:“Excuse me?” Answer:
repeated and more careful utterance of
fourth floor.
Each employee thus could pronounce post-
vocalic /r/ four times (twice each in fourth
and floor
Result: The results illustrated that /r / in New
York City was stratified by class. The
pronunciation of /r/ depended on the social-
class membership of the employees: Those
with higher socioeconomic status
pronounced /r/ more frequently than those
with lower socioeconomic status
HYPERCORRECTION
hypercorrection is non-standard use of
language that results from the over-
application of a perceived rule of language-
usage prescription.
VERNACULAR
the casual, normal spoken form of the
language or dialect of the person's speech
community.
social network describes the structure of a
particular speech community. Social
networks are composed of a "web of ties"
between individuals, and the structure of a
network will vary depending on the types of
connections it is composed of. Social
network theory (as used by sociolinguists)
posits that social networks, and the
interactions between members within the
networks, are a driving force behind
language change.
High Density Network
refer to a group who are in frequent contact
and familiar to each other.
Multiplex Social Network
is one in which interacting parties share
more than one role.
RESTRICTED CODE
speech lacking in stylistic range because
the speakers share enough assumptions
that some of the meaning of their messages
is derived from context and gestures.
ELABORATED CODE
refers to the variety of language use
characteristic of relatively formal speech Turn-taking
situations. In such situations, little if any,
reliance is placed on extralinguistic context Turn-taking gives rises to complex forms
to make the message fully meaningful.
of interaction in relation to the more
regimented form of turn-taking. Female
linguistic behavior characteristically
LANGUAGE AND GENDER
encompasses a desire to take turns in
conversation with others, which is
"Language and gender" refers to the0
opposed to men's tendency towards
relationship between the language of
centering on thier own point or
male and female.
remaining silent when presented with
such implicit offers of conversational
turn-taking as are provided by hedges
WHAT IS GENDER?
such as and "isn't it"
Gender refers to the socially constructed
Changing the topic of conversation
betwee women and men.

Changing the topic of

GENDERLECTS
conversation this difference may
well be at the roof of the
-Tannen argues that both masculine and
conception that women chatter
feminine styles of0 communication are
and talk too much, and may still
ueually valued.
sparker the same thinking in
some males. In this way lowered
-Men and women completely
estimation of women may arise.
communicate in different way like a
cross-cultural format.
Self-disclosure
-It states that women seek for
Self-disclosure is the process was
connection and intimacy whil seek
originally defined as telling others about
status and avoid questions.
the self.
Minimal Response
Verbal Agression
Minimal Response is one of the ways in
which the communicative behavior of
• Women engage in kross, or
men and women differ.
"angry talk", which is typically
characterized by vituperative and brazen
Question
displays of insults and shouting.
Question men and women differ in their
use of questions in conversations.
• Men focused on the down play of characterized as a nonstandard variety
conflict in order to maintain or at least of English spoken by African-Americans
give the illusion of harmony in urban ghettos of the United States, a
variety referred to as African-American
Politeness Vernacular English.
Politeness is best expressed as the
practical application of good manners or Pride and Prod
etiquette. find and fond
pride and proud
Three forms of politeness find and found
1.Formal politeness - Generally oil and all
accepted formal standards usually both and loaf
denote professionalism, whereas the with and sniff
absence or lack of standards would be sure, shoe, show
seen as casual.
interesting - inte'estin
2.Deference politeness - Deference paris - pass
politeness is the condition of submitting terrace - tess
to the espoused, legitimate influence of fooled - food
one's superior or superiors. toll - toe
bolt and boat
3.Camaraderie - is Goodwill and
lighthearted rapport between or among From the perspective of linguistic
friends; comradeship. It is usually used anthropology, the grammar used by
when we speak with our friends. native speakers of any language variety
cannot be termed incorrect, even when
it differs from other dialects or the
language, "race," and ethnicity standard itself.

Race Johnny run.

A race is a categorization of humans
based on shared physical or social •He eat meat.
qualities into groups generally viewed as
distinct within a given society. •Hand me the man coat.

African-American English is
characterized by pronunciations,
syntactic structures, and vocabulary
associated with and used by a fairly
large number of African-Americans. It is
also called as Ebonics. AAE is

•Foots, mens, and childrens for feet,
men, and children.
In comparison with Standard English,
AAVE is characterized by multiple
negation.
•“Didn’t nobody see it.” •“Wasn’t nobody
home.
The verb form be, as in “She be busy,”
contrasts in AAVE with its absence, as
in the corresponding “She busy.”
AAVE further differs from Standard
English in specialized vocabulary,
variant stress patterns on certain words,
and the like. Despite these and other
features that set the two Englishes
apart, however, the adjustment a non-
speaker of AAVE has to make to
comprehend it is no more than the effort
needed to understand cockney.
How did African-american english
came about
It dates back to the seventeenth century,
when slave ships carrying goods sailed
from English Ports; the cargoes were
exchanged along the West African coast
for captured Africans who, in turn, were
sold as slaves in the Caribbean and the
North America South for work in
plantations.
African-american English: myths and
facts
A great many people, regardless of
ethnic background, consider AAE as a
badly corrupted, deficient form of
English. The negative attitude toward
AAE in U.S. society is in part reinforced
by the low socioeconomic status of
many African-American resulting from a
long-standing pattern of racial
discrimination.
AAE is just as rule-governed as other
forms of English, but the rules that
characterize its usage are, as may be
expected, somewhat different.
merits emphasized in ebonics study
1.There is no question that so-called
Ebonics is one among many variations
of English;
2. Not helping African-American
students to become proficient is
Standard American English will do them
socioeconomic disservice
3.It might be helpful to use Ebonics in
some manner with students who speak
it if doing so would aid them in learning
Standard English;
4.Competence in more than one
language or dialect is an asset.
language and nationality
language
– a system of communication which
consists of a set of sounds and written
symbols which are used by the people
of a particular country or region for
talking or writing.
nationality
- the legal relationship between a person
and a state. It is a legal bond that
identifies an individual as belonging to a
specific nation and is the basis of their
legal rights and duties in that nation.
-The basis of identification of nationality
is birth or inheritance
-Nationality represents legal status
Nationality arises from geographical
location
canada
-Canadian
-Current population is 38,647,477
- A bilingual country with English and
French being its two officially spoken
languages.
- Problems of bilingualism have always
been the central issue in the nation’s
politics.
Jacques cartier
He landed in current Quebec in 1534
and claimed the territory for King Francis
I, eventually calling it New France.
Quebec act of 1774
This guaranteed the residents the use of
the French language, Catholicism, and
French civil law. This practice was
reified several times, and in 1969 the
Official Language Act made English and
French Canada’s two official languages.
 According to 2007 government
figures, about 60 percent of
Canadians claim English as their
native language, as do about 23
percent for French. The majority
of these French speakers
 about 86 percent – live in
Quebec. More than 17 percent of
the population is bilingual in
English and French.
 In spite of the unique
characteristics and background of
the original British and French
settlers, Anglophone Canadians
began to control most of the elite
positions in business and
industry, even in Quebec.
 By the 1960s, many Francophone
residents began to feel that the
French language was being
overwhelmed by English. To
maintain Canada’s bilingualism,
the federal and local
governments created various
departments created various
departments and institutions to
oversee the use of languages in
the province.
J. LINGUISTIC
ANTHROPOLOGY IN A GLOBALIZED
WORLD
LANGUAGE PLANNING
THE MOST COMMONLY USED AND
BEST
DEVELOPED FORM OF APPLIED
LINGUISTICS
IS LANGUAGE PLANNING.
Language Planning may be called for
when the presence of several competing
languages in a country has become
divisive or when a particular language or
dialect is to be elevated to serve as the
official or national language of a multi-
lingual or multi-dialectal society. The
initial step in language planning is to
define the nature of the problem.
The term language planning refers to a
deliberate attempt, usually at the level of
the state, to affect language use to
prevent or solve some problem of
communication.
The two main reasons are the
dislocation of millions of people as a
result of wars and political
persecution and the emergence of
many new multiethnic states when
colonial empires were dissolved after
World War II.
Language planning usually takes one of
two forms. One form involves a change
in the status of a language or a
dialect– in other words, a change in
language use.
The other involves changes in the
structure of a language– changes
affecting its pronunciation, spelling,
grammar or vocabulary.
Frequently, however, the two forms are
combined.
LITERACY, WRITING,
& EDUCATION
There is no doubt that there are
significant social and cultural differences
between literate and non literate people.
Having a writing system, of course,
expands the collective and historical
memory of the group. In theory, in a
literate community, accurate historical
records can be kept, scientific
information accrued, and religious
traditions maintained. Ideally, literacy
allows for knowledge to be
disseminated to everyone, not just by
a select few.
Members of complex industrial societies
often underestimate the intellectual
prowess and aesthetic sensibilities of
nonliterates who do not use of written
language. The findings of
anthropologists have demonstrated time
and again how false such an
assumption is.
Today, literacy is no longer
considered simply the ability to
read and write but is increasingly
conceived as a process of
interpretation.
Literacy allows us to reformulate existing
knowledge to understand new
knowledge. Literacy is less a set of
acquired skills than the acquisition of a
new way of thinking – one that allows us
to negotiate with the world in new ways.
Literacy is learning to become
competent in one’s community.
Even though the term communication
also includes writing, accounts of how
writing is used in a particular society
appears only rarely in ethnographic
literature. This is because
anthropologists traditionally have been
interested in nonliterates societies, and
also because anthropological studies of
complex industrial societies in which
writing is important and widely used tend
to concentrate on face-to-face
interaction rather than the relatively
remote contact established and
maintained by writing.
Keith Basso (1974:426) reminds us that
the ethnographic study of writing should
not be conceived of as an autonomous
enterprise… but as one element in more
encompassing field of inquiry which
embraces the totality of human
communication skills.
The same units and components
that are employed in the
ethnography of speaking might
also apply to writing.
Several related acts of writing combine
to form a writing event. The sender and
the receiver of letters are participants,
and the circumstances under which a
letter is sent, or letters are exchanged
provide a setting for an act of writing or
a writing event.
The channel for writing is optical, but the
codes vary. Different languages make
use of different writing systems, and
preschool children sometimes write by
drawing pictures.
If we extend the term writing from true
writing to any visual communication
accomplished by the use of enduring
marks or signs, we can then talk about
various genre.
If studies in the ethnography of writing
are to be complete and insightful, they
need to include the sociocultural context
in which they occur.
Again, Basso posed some of the
questions to answered, among them
are:
-How is the ability to write
distributed among the members
of a community, and how does
the incidence of this ability vary
with factors such as age, sex,
socioeconomic class and the
like?
-What kinds of information are
considered appropriate for
transmission through written
channels?
-Who sends written messages to
whom, when, and for what
reasons?
-In short, what position does
writing occupy in the total
 communicative economy of the
society under study and what is
the range of its cultural
meanings?
Those questions have not yet
been seriously addressed for
more than a very few world’s
societies, though there has been
some work in this vein.
For example, Niko Besnier (1995)
studied literacy, gender, and authority in
Nukulaelae atoll in Polynesia. The
Nukalaelae are now fundamentalist
Christians. Sunday sermons are
carefully scripted and circulated.
Particular linguistic features characterize
these sermons includes elaborate poetic
alteration, special pronoun use, and
other kinds of formal features.
THE LIFE & DEATH OF LANGUAGES
A look at a source book such as
Ethnologue (Gordon 2005)shows
that there is great linguistic
diversity all around us. The
world’s 6.8 billion people speak
some 6,000 languages. However,
96% of them are spoken by only
4% of the population. More than
half the world’s population speak
just twenty languages.
David Crystal claims that on average,
one language dies out every two weeks.
Endangered Languages
According to David Crystal, about 500
languages have fewer than 100
speakers, and more than 1,500
languages have only 1,000 speakers at
the most.
Of the six or seven thousand languages
used in the world today, only about 600
can be considered safe, meaning that
the number of their speakers will have
become larger, or at least have
remained at critical mass.
Why do languages die?
A fairly common reason in the past
could be that very small societies did not
survive epidemic diseases against which
they had no resistance, or they perished
in warfare or in such natural disasters.
The most common reason in the 20th
century was the economic and cultural
influence of large nation-states that
encompass small tribal societies within
their borders.
Language Death:
Why should we care?
Five Reasons Why We Should Care
according to Crystal
 Because we need diversity
in order to preserve our
traditional cultural wealth.
 Because languages
constitute the primary
symbol of ethnic identity.
 Because languages are
repositories of our history.
  Because languages  Should they wonder
contribute to the sum of whether they have a moral
human knowledge. obligation to try to save a
 Because languages are language even if its
fascinating in themselves. speakers are ambivalent
about its practical value
As one linguistic field- and future usefulness?
worker observed, “to fight
to preserve the smaller Language Maintenance &
cultures and languages Reinforcement
may turn out to be the
struggle to preserve the Language maintenance and
most precious things that reinforcement typically include linguistic
make us human before we analysis, a writing system, and the
end up in the land fill of production of instructional materials.
history.”
For the Northern Arapaho of the Wind
And as Kenneth Hale, a River Reservation in Wyoming, who are
linguist, once said “when eager to maintain and even reinforce
you lose a language, it’s their ethnic identity and cultural heritage,
like dropping a bomb on a the present situation is nothing short of
museum.” critical. Several factors contribute to the
gloomy outlook.
This situation poses important
questions:  With few expectations, the
only individuals who have
 Should anthropological full command of Arapaho
field-workers make special are the members of the
efforts to maintain or oldest generation.
revitalize an endangered  Parents no longer teach
language? Arapaho to their children in
 Should they try to the home.
persuade the remaining  Active speakers and those
speakers of such an who have at least some
endangered language to passive knowledge of
make sure that the Arapaho are declining rapidly.
youngest members can  The bulk of the population
learn it as their mother is for all the practical
tongue? purposes monolingual.
  Arapaho is losing its
communicative viability.
The most significant step taken to arrest
the language decay was to formalize the
teaching of spoken Arapaho to the
youngest pupils.
This brief account of one example of
language maintenance and
reinforcement would not be complete
without emphasizing that many
additional steps must be taken to
expand the program in the future. Below
are the following additional steps.
 Workshops designed to
develop new curricular
materials and improve the
existing ones.
 In-service training of
current teachers and
teacher aides.
 Internship program for
future teachers.
 Tribal scholarships for
students who have shown
exceptional intellectual
capacity as well as interest
and skill in learning a dying
language to allow them
study linguistics and
anthropology at the college
level.
 Adult education programs
featuring elders narrating
traditional tales or life
histories and other
reminiscences
 Summer camp for
preschoolers and
elementary pupils.
In the initial stages of any language
maintenance programs, linguistic
anthropologists provide useful advice
and help, but it is preferable and
important that, as far as possible, such
programs and activities be further
developed, organized, and administered
by members of the societies concerned.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
& TRANSLATION
When so many people frequently travel
far home and encounter members of
different ethnic groups and societies,
interethnic and intercultural relations are
continually being put to test.
Intercultural Communication is a
symbolic, interpretive, transactional,
contextual process, in which people
from different cultures create shared
meanings.
Even in languages or dialects that are
closely similar or considered to be alike,
specific words may have different sense
or carry a different emphasis from one
language to the other, resulting in
occasional misunderstanding.
COMPROMISE
In Britain, compromise means to work
out a good solution.
In America, compromise means to work
out a bad one, a solution in which all the
points of importance are lost.
Translation can be troublesome, as
anyone who has ever studied a foreign
language knows. The scholarly literature
and personal anecdotes offer hundreds
of examples of mistranslated words,
phrases or whole pieces of discourse.
Translation allows people of one culture
try to know the information conveyed to
them by other cultures.
Intercultural communication relies
heavily on translation and interpretation,
which are two very important tools for
creating a bridge of meaning-crossing,
from one language to another, and from
one culture to another.
LANGUAGE AND THE LAW
Language and the law employs many
variety including ethnography,
conversation and discourse analysis,
narrative analysis, textual and literary
analysis, and formal linguistic analysis.
Given its insistence on the necessary
linkage between linguistic structures and
sociocultural processes, linguistic
anthropology offers a fruitful guide for
understanding law and language from
this multilevel perspective.
‘Have an orange’ might read in
legalese as
“I hereby give and convey to you, all and
singular, my estate and interest, right,
title, claim and advantages of and in
said orange, together with its rind, skin,
juice, pulp, and pips and all rights and
advantages therein and full power to
bite, suck or otherwise eat the same or
give the same away with or without the
rind, skin, juice, pulp and pips.”
Venire, tort, eminent domain, pursuant
to, know all men by these presents, and
(in) flagrante delicto?
ENGLISH AS AN
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
International Language
 The language which is used all
over the world for smooth
communication.
 It is one that is used in more than
one place or country.
During the Middle Ages, Latin served
as the language of intellectual discourse
in most countries of Europe
French functioned as the "universal"
language from the seventeenth through
the nineteenth centuries by virtue of
French political and intellectual
influence, and it remained the preferred
language of diplomacy until World War
II.
According to a well-known Czech
proverb, the number of languages a
person knows, that many times is he or
she a human being.
 sake rather than for conveying
ALWAYS ON: NEW LITERACIES & information.
LANGUAGE IN AN ONLINE GLOBAL
WORLD Formal Linguistic Changes

Sociolinguistic Changes We must remember that no matter how

 Language is who you are.
 Erving Goffman (1959)
introduced the theoretical
construct of the "presentation of
self in everyday life"
superficially it may appear to be the
same as face-to-face interactions, digital
communication is not speech.
David Crystal (2004) suggests that
there are at least three major
differences.

Though anticipated by Shakespeare four  First, for the most part,

centuries earlier-all the world is a stage- there is the lack of
simultaneous feedback
Goffman argued that much of social life- found in an actual
our face time is spent managing how we conversation. All the
want others to see us. And because we proxemic and
are in many ways what we pretend to paralinguistic features
be, as Kurt Vonnegut said, this has are missing.
important psychological implications as
well.  Second, in a chatroom
or Facebook
Likewise, in face-to-face communication, encounter, all
I am compelled to interact with people messages are created
and conversations as they come up. equal.
You have to deal with meeting that old
boyfriend on the quad; I have to deal  Third, the rhythm of
with that problem student who comes to communication is
the office for hand-holding everyday. We different. The lag
cannot avoid these encounters. But in between sending a
the world of digital communications, we message and getting a
are all "lan- guage Czars," as Naomi response in digital
Baron argues (2008). communication is very
Bronislaw Malinowski (1923) proposed different in telephone or
that some speech is phatic face-to-face
communication-small talk for its own encounters.
Changes in Orthography
 Writing changes over time as
fashions and opinions change.
 Constance Hale and Jesse
Scanlon in Wired Style (1999)
argue that "no one reads email
with red pen in hand" so we
should "celebrate subjectivity"
and "write the way people talk"
(Baron 2008:172).
 Baron (2008:171) says, "Modern
linguistic theory eschews passing
judgment on any linguistic
variant, and I am not about to do
so now. Rather, I'm suggesting
that should linguistic entropy
snowball, we may discover that
personally expressive, culturally
accommodating, and clock-driven
language users will find it
increasingly difficult to
understand one another's
nuances."
 Crystal argues that so far, at
least, the pedagogical and "moral
panic" surrounding e-mail and
texting is overblown. The belief
that the "highly deviant character"
of digital communication is
fostering poor literacy results has
been shown by psychologists and
educators to be largely an "urban
myth" (2010:417).
Digital Communication, Literacy &
Cognition
 Digital communication literacy is
changing modern life is in
education and cognition.
 Donald Leu and others argue that
there are four defining
characteristics of these new
literacies.
First, new information and
communication technologies involving
novel literacy tasks require new skills
and strategies if they are to be used
effectively.
Second-though this is often resisted
"overtly, by deliberate educational
policies... or covertly, by educators who
sometimes are not nearly as literate with
the Internet as the students they teach
new literacies are now a critical
component for full participation in civic,
economic, and social life in a global
world.
Third, these new literacies are deictic-
that is, they change as new technologies
emerge.
Fourth, new literacies are "multiple,
multimodal, and multifaceted," thus
making them more complex to
apprehend and understand.
The Language of the Internet
English appears to be the default
language of almost any site you hit.
In his book Language and the Internet
(2001), the noted linguist David Crystal
wondered whether the English
dominated Internet would contribute to
the demise of other languages, at least
on the Web