John / kissed / Jane. (SVO)John / is / tall.

(SVC) • attitude (style, register, levels of formality)

1.John / gave / Jane / a present. (SVOO) Communication chain– (message, they must know the same code, outside reality)
2.John / made / Jane / angry. (SVOC) The structure of conversation (participants + topic nomination + goals and strategies/ turn taking+
3.John / sat / up. (SVA) topic termination.Design features of language :
4.John / put / the bag / down. (SVOA) a) mammalian communication:
Language – complex system of comunication. System of words, signs, used by human to express • vocal auditory channel (mouth, nose ears)
thoughts and feelings, to comunicate with each other. It allows to create unlimited number of • broadcast transmission and firectional reception (sign travels in all direction and can
sentences.The scientific sudy of lanuage is called linguistics.Functionals of language : be localised within hearing distance)
• instrumental (to satysfy our needs „I want”) • rapid fading (the signal lasts only for a definite period of time)
• regualtory (controlling the behaviour of others „Do as I tell you”) • interchangeability (sender-receiver)
• interactional (getting along with other people „Me and you”) • tota,l feedback (sender can hear his own message)
• personal (expressing the self, feelings, emotions „Here I come”) b) man and other primates:
• heuristic (exploring the world „Tell me why”) • specialisation (communication is the only purpose of sending a signal
• imaginative (creating a word of one's own, fairy tales „Let's pretend”) • semanticity (the signal conveys the meaning)
• informative (communicating new information „I must tell you sth”) • arbitrariness (the realtion between sound and meaning is conventional)
• representational (convey facts, knowledge, to explain) c) human:
Linguistics – the semiotic study of language. Scientific study and describing language and • discretness ( sound may be indeterminate in trms of physical properties)
dependents between different languages. Creating theory of language. • duality of patterning (units are composed of two levels; sound and meanign)
Sociolinguistic variables - • openness (creativity/productivity we can create and understand novel utterances)
• social variation (status, sex, age) • dispacement (beyond here and now)
• regional variation (dialect) • cultural transmission (acquired in the process of learning the whole culture)
• field of discourse (choice of vocabulary)
• medium (oral or written channel)
Grammar – allow us to describe a sentence as a string of words and combined in appropiate are written to help teach a foreign language.
way according to the rules of grammar. There are two types of grammars: descriptive and Morphology – the study of free and bound forms of words and the set of rules governing the
prescriptive. Descriptive grammars represent the unconscious knowledge of a language. English internal structure of words.
speakers, for example, know that "me likes apples" is incorrect and "I like apples" is correct, Morphemes - the minimal units of words that have a meaning and cannot be subdivided further. It
although the speaker may not be able to explain why. Descriptive grammars do not teach the rules has gramatical function. Free morphemes can occur alone and bound morphemes must occur with
of a language, but rather describe rules that are already known. In contrast,prescriptive det. Adj. Noun phrase the big dog Aux. Have spoken Det. the smaller child. Adj /Adv quickly ran
grammars dictate what a speaker's grammar should be and they include teaching grammars, which
another morpheme. An example of a free morpheme is "bad", and an example of a bound place
morpheme is "ly."Affixes are often the bound morpheme. This group includes prefixes, suffixes,
infixes,and circumfixes. Prefixes are added to the beginning of another morpheme, suffixes are the place to which an action is
Goal Put the cat on the porch
added to the end, infixes are inserted into other morphemes, and circumfixes are attached to another directed
morpheme at the beginning and end. Word – minimum free form which can occur by itself: the place from which an action
• open/full/lexical house, long, write, Source He flew from Chicago to LA
originates
• closed/empty/gramatical/function (my,some,this, and,of,in) the means by which an action is
Phonetics - phonetics is the study of sounds and is concerned with the production, audition and Instrument He cuts his hair with scissors
performed
perception of of speech sounds (called phones),
Phonology- describes the way sounds function within a given language and operates at the level of Experiencer one who perceives something She heard Bob play the piano
sound systems and abstract sound units. Knowing the sounds of a language is only a small part of a natural force that causes a
phonology. This importance is shown by the fact that you can change one word into another by Causative The wind destroyed the house
change
simply changing one sound. All distinctive sounds are classified as phonemes.
Phonemes are not physical sounds. They are abstract mental representations of the phonological Possessor one who has something The tail of the cat got caught
units of a language.Phones are considered to be any single speech sound of which phonemes are Recipient one who receives something I gave it to the girl
made. Phonemes are a family of phones regarded as a single sound and represented by the same Sentence - basic syntatic units, it expresses a complete thought.
symbol. Pragmatics – the general study of how world knowledge and the context influence the meanign of
The different phones that are the realization of a phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme. senetences and the way the native speaker interprets them. Pragmatic meaning looks at the same
The use of allophones is not random, but rule-governed. No one is taught these rules as they are words and grammar used semantically, except within context. In each situation, the various listeners
learned subconsciously when the native language is acquired. To distinguish between a phoneme in the conversation define the ultimate meaning of the words, based on other clues that lend subtext
and its allophones, I will use slashes // to enclose phonemes and brackets [] to enclose allophones or to the meaning.For example, if you were told to, “Crack the window," and the room was a little
phones. For example, [i] and [ĩ] are allophones of the phoneme /i/; [ɪ] and [ɪ ]̃ are allophones of the stuffy, and the speaker had just said prior to this that they were feeling a little warm, then you would
phoneme /ɪ/. Syntax – part of linguistics which is concerned woth the structure of sentences. know, pragmatically, that the speaker would like you to open the window a 'crack' or just a
Semantics – the part of linguistics theory which deals with meaning. little.Semantics -refers to the meaning of words in a language and the meaning within the
Homonymy: different words that are pronounced the same, but may or may not be spelled the same sentence.Semantics considers the meaning of the sentence without the context. The field of
(to, two, and too)Polysemy: word that has multiple meanings that are related conceptually or semantics focuses on three basic things: “the relations of words to the objects denoted by them, the
historically (bear can mean to tolerate or to carry or to support)Homograph: different words that relations of words to the interpreters of them, and, in symbolic logic, the formal relations of signs to
are spelled identically and possibly pronounced the same; if they are pronounced the same, they are one another (syntax)". Semantics is just the meaning that the grammar and vocabulary impart, it
also homonyms (pen can mean writing utensil or cage)Homophones: phonetically the same does not account for any implied meaning.TEXT – unit of limited length formed by a sequence of
(dear,deer)Synonym: words that mean the same but sound different (buy&purchase)Antonym: utterances, where each pf the following utterances repeats the information introduced by previous
words that are opposite in meaning (big&small)Hyponym: set of related words (red, white, yellow, ones and adds to it some new information, a continuity of senses. Discourse – the external
blue are all hyponyms of "color")Metonym: word used in place of another to convey the same situational aspects of text. (Are you dissatisfied? A question and command to stop complaining)
meaning (jock used for athlete, Washington used for American government, crown used for Standards of textuality:
monarcy) • cohesion - „Can you come tommorow? Yes I can” components of surface text are
mutually connected within a sequence.
DETERMINERS a an the this that there pronouns
• Coherence - „Can you come tommorow? The bus drivers are on strike components
AUXILIARY VERBS forms of be, have may,can,shall of text are connected by grammatical link and semantically.
• Intentionality – concernign the text producer's attitude to attain a goal.
Thematic Role Description Example • Acceptability – the text receiver's attitude to acquire knowledge.
• Informativity – extent of information expected vs unexpected.
Agent the one who performs an action Maria ran
• Situationality – concerns the factors that make the text relevant to a situation of
the person or thing that occurence.
Theme Mary called John
undergoes an action • Intertextuality - the factors which make one text dependent upon knowledge of
Location the place where an action takes It rains in Spain another text.