Chapter-2

HOISTING EQUIPMENT
HOISTING EQUIPMENT

Hoisting equipment are usually powered

equipment used for lifting and lowering unit and
varying loads intermittently.
In certain equipment while lifting and lowering,
shifting of the load can also be accomplished,
within an area known as the reach of the
equipment.
 CONT’D
The components, parts and units of hoisting equipment
include:
o Flexible hoisting appliances;
o Pulleys and pulley systems;
o Sprockets and drums;
o Load handling attachments;
o Stopping and braking devices;
o Drivers (motors), Transmission components (axles,
shafts, bearings, clutches, etc.);
o Rails and travelling wheels;
o Machine structures (crane frames) and Control
devices.
 CONT’D
There are three groups of hoisting equipment having the
following main distinctive features. 
i. Hoisting machines: designed as self-lifting gear
and for hoisting and moving.
ii. Cranes: a combination of separate hoisting
mechanism with a frame for lifting and/or moving
loads.
iii. Elevators: a group of periodic action machine
intended for raising loads with guide- ways.
 CONT’D
The main technical parameters are:
o Lifting capacity: the maximum safe load the
machine is designed to handle;
o Dead weight of the machine: the total weight
of the machine with out the load;
o Speed of various movements: hoisting speed,
the bridge travel speed and the trolley travel
speed;
o Lifting height: the height to which the load is
intended to be raised;
o Geometrical dimension of the machine.
 CONT’D
Hoisting machines are periodic-action machines
and their hourly capacity can be determined from:
Qhr  n  Q

Where n = number of machine cycles per hour

Q = weight of live load [tons]
Qhr = hourly capacity [tons/h]
For unit loads, Q is understood to mean the
weight of one piece load in tons.
 CONT’D
When handling bulk material, the weight of live loads is:

Q = V   
Where V = capacity of bucket, grab etc [m3]
 = filling factor
 = specific weight [t/m3]
 
 CONT’D
The total load lifting capacity of the machine will be:
Qtot  Q  G
Where: Q = live load [tons]
G = weight of bucket, grab, etc. [tons]
 CONT’D
The number of cycle per hour is:

3600
n
Where:
t
 t   t op  t idle
 DUTY CHARACTERISTICS OF HANDLING
MECHANISMS
Factors acting on the operating conditions are:
1. Load on the machine
2. Its annual and daily utilization
3. Relative duty factory (DF)
4. Ambient temperature
Mean lifting capacity utilization:
Qm
K load 
Qn
Qm= mean value of load [tons]
Where:
Qn= nominal load [tons]
 CONT’D
Yearly utilization factor:
Days in operations per year
K year 
365

Daily utilization factor:

Hours in operations per day
K day 
24
 CONT’D
Hourly utilization factor:
Time - on in an operationa l hour(min )
K hr 
60

Mean utilization of the machine per working cycle:

t op
DF  100%
t op  tidle
The total time-on, T, of a mechanism throughout its life, h
(in years)
DF
T  365K  24K K  h
100
year day hr
 CONT’D
• Duties of Hoisting Machinery

Duty Mean Utilization of Mechanism

By Time Duty Factor Temperature
K load
0
C
(DF) %
K year K day
Light L 0.5 0.25 0.33 15 25
Medium M 0.5 0.5 0.67 25 25
Heavy H 0.75 0.75 0.67 40 25
Very Heavy VH 1.0 1.0 1.0 40 45
FLEXIBLE HOISTING APPLIANCES
  Introduction
The needs of hoisting machinery in pliable
members are met widely by;-
1. Hemp rope,
2. Welded and roller chains,
3. Steel wire ropes.
The applications of hemp ropes as pliable members are
limited due to their strength and lack of reliability.
They are mainly used as means of slinging the load to
the hook.
In this portion, we will deal with hemp ropes, welded
 Cont. …
A. Hemp ropes
 Because of Poor mechanical properties
 Rapid abrasion, inadequate strength, rapid damage from
sharp materials, atmospheric effect etc. …
 Recommended only for hand operated hoisting machinery
(rope pulleys).
 Cont. …
 The diameters of the sheaves over which the rope
runs should be at least 10d,and d is the nominal
rope diameter.
 By the mode of manufacture and number of strands,
hemp ropes are classified as plain-laid and cable-
laid. Cable laid is made of three or four plain-laid
ropes twisted together from right to left

a) Plain laid b) Cable laid

 Cont. …
 Selecting hemp ropes
Hemp ropes are frequently soaked with tar to make it water
proof. By so doing the rope displays better resistance to
external effects (weather).
 Disadvantage weight gain and lose of strength.
 Cont. …
 So, the load that the rope can withstand is given by;-

𝜋 𝑑2
𝐹=
4 𝜎𝑏𝑟

Where 𝐹 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 [𝐾𝑔𝑓]

𝑑 = 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟[𝑐𝑚]
2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝜎𝑏𝑟 = 100 𝐾𝑔𝑓 /𝑐𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝜎𝑏𝑟 = 90 𝐾𝑔𝑓 𝑐𝑚
 B. Welded and Roller chains
1. Welded load chains
They are widely used in hoisting installations as pliable
members. The main dimensions of the links are (show below).

Where;-
 t - pitch of the chain equal to
the inside length of the link.
 d - diameter of chain bar.
 B - chain outside width.

 Depending on the ratio between the pitch and the diameter

of the chain bar, welded chains are classified into:
i. Short-link chains with t ≤ 3 d
ii. Long-link chains with t > 3 d
 Cont. …
Manufacturing accuracy divides welded
chains into;-
i. Calibrated- with permissible deviation from the
nominal size within;- t + 0.03d and B + 0.05d.
ii. Uncalibrated- with permissible deviation from the
nominal size within;- t+0.1d and B+ 0.1d
 Cont. …

 Production Methods;-
Welded chains are formed from oval steel links. Links for
welded chain are formed by a number of methods. The
most common of these are
 Hammer (forge) and
 Electric resistance welding.
 Cont. …
i. By hammer (forge) welding:- the chain bar is formed by
forging to chain shape, then the ends are forge welded.
ii. Electric resistance welding:- for electric resistance
welding (Fig.below) the link is made of two butt-welded half
links.

Connecting links of load chain By resistance welding

 Cont. …
 Hammer (forge) welding

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure shows Sequence in the Manufacturing of Welded

Chains: (a) Blanks cut-steel bar, (b) Pre-bent blanks, (c) Chain
assembles prior to welding and (d) Chain with welded links
 Applications
Because of the shortcomings, welded chains are used;-
 some hand driven mechanisms (Dmin > 20d),

 for few power driven mechanisms (Dmin > 30d)

 They are employed for low capacity hoisting machines

(hoists, winches, hand-operated cranes, etc.), they are also
used as the main lifting appliance and as hand driven chains
for traction wheels (d = 5 to 6mm at a speed of v = 0.6 to
0.75m/s).
 Advantage and Disadvantage
 Advantages of welded chains;-
o Good flexibility in all directions.
o Possibility to use small diameter
pulleys and drums.
o Simple design and manufacture.

 Disadvantages of welded chains

o Heavy weight
o Sudden failure
o Intensive wear at the link joints
o Low safe speed of movement
o Susceptible to jerks and overload
 Selection of load chains
 Stress calculation
 The actual stress calculation is Very difficult
 Statistically determinate with respect to external forces
and indeterminate with respect to internal stress.
 Chains are checked for tension taking higher safety factor
(3 to 8) to compensate the complexity.

Where, Fbr = breaking load [kgf] (given in manufacturer's catalogue

and in standards)
 Selection
Data for the Selection of Chains
 Cont. …
The wear intensity for chains depends on;-
o The ratio of the connecting pitches
o Tension and speed of chain
o The angle of the relative turn of links as they pass around
the sheaves
 II. Roller chains
Roller chains are composed of plates hinge-jointed
by pins and rollers.
 Number of plates depend on the load they are intended
to handle
o Two plates for light load (Fig. (a).
o Up to 12 plates for very heavy loads (b).

(a) Simple Roller Chain with Two Plates (b)

 Cont. …
 The plates can be secured on the pins by several methods
like retainer rings, pins, etc. as shown in Fig. below.

Applications Fastening the Plates on the Roller Pins

 Used for;-
o hand operated;- and power driven winches and hoisting
mechanisms of high load lifting capacity;-
o Operate at low speed.
o Need guide ways
 Cont. …
Advantages
o Higher reliability of operation (b/c plates are solid).
o Good flexibility and can be used on small diameter
sprockets with small number of teeth.
o Less friction at the joints than that of welded chains.
Disadvantages
o Should not be used to carry a load at an angle (causes
excessive wear and breakage).
o Should not be in dusty environment if not sealed
(cause excessive wear )
o Should not be allowed to wind on a drum
Max. allowable speed is 0.25 m/s
 Selection of roller chains

The values of the factor of safety K ,the ration D/d (D is

diameter of the drum or sprocket and d is diameter of the
chain bar or diameter of the roller) and the number of teeth on
the sprockets for welded and roller chains are tabulated in the
Table below .
 The values of Fbr for each standardized chain are given in
the concerned tabulations of standards and manufacturers
catalogue.
 C. Steel wire ropes
 The needs of hoisting
machinery in pliable members
are met predominantly by steel
wire ropes.

 The most extensively used ropes for hoisting

machineries are;-
 Cold drawn, heat and chemical treated in order to obtain
strength ,structure, appearance and surface finish.
 Standard 6 – 8 strands and core.
 Each strand consists of 19-37 wires.
 Cont. …
 Advantages compared to chain
o Lighter weight.
o Less susceptible to damages from jerks.
o Silent operation even at high speeds.
o Greater reliability in operation.
o If galvanized(zinc coated) can work in damp premises
(coating reduces the strength up to 10%).
 Wire ropes are made of steel having σult=130 to
200kgf/mm2. While manufacturing steel wire rope, they
are subjected to special heat treatment, which is combined
with cold drawing imparts high mechanical properties to
the steel wire rope.
 Cont. …
Kinds of Wire Ropes
Bright, uncoated wires are used for cranes working in
dry places. Galvanized wires (zinc coated) are used for
cranes operating in damp places to prevent corrosion,
but the coating reduces the strength by 10%.
 Cont. …
 Wire ropes formed from strands are known as
double lay ropes.
 Wire rope classification based on lays;-
I. Cross regular lay ropes: the direction of twist of wires in
the strand is opposite to that of the strands in the rope.
Have the widest application (shown below.)
 Cont. …
II. Parallel or long lay ropes: the direction of the twist of

wires and strand is the same. More flexible and resist wear
better, but tends to spring. Used in lifts and other hoisting
equipment's with guide ways and haulage ropes(shown in (b).
 Cont. …
III. Composite or reverse laid ropes:- the wires in two
adjacent strands are twisted in the opposite directions.(c).
 Kinds of wire ropes
1. General purpose steel wire ropes:-
a) Ordinary(one size wire) construction.
o Wires have equal diameter.
o High unit pressure on external wires (shorter life).
b) Warrington type compound rope
o Wires have different diameter
o Reduced unit pressure.
 Cont. …
2. Non spinning wire ropes:-
 The most expensive wire ropes;-
• Advantages
o Uniform load distribution over the individual
wires which reduces internal stress to a minimum
o Better flexibility
o Greater operation safety
o Less wear of wire running over drums or
sheaves (wires and strands do not project from
contour, outer wires wear uniformly, Brocken
wires remain in their initial position
 Cont. …
3. Steel wire ropes with flattened strands:-
• Made from five flattened strands with flattened
wire core
• Strands are laid on hemp core
• Uniform pressure
• Used in places where there is intensive abrasion
and wear
• These ropes have a larger area of contact with the
pulley or drum with smaller compression,
abrasion and wear.
 Cont. …

4. Locked-coil steel wire ropes

Outer wire ropes have special shape.
They have smooth surface.
Little wear.
Used with cable ways and cable cranes.
Never met within hoisting Machines.
Have flexibility problem.
Safety factor and allowable broken wires as to the
construction of wire rope for lifts.
Initial Rope construction
factor of 6×19=144+1C 6×37=222+1C
safety of Cross laid Parallel laid Cross laid Parallel laid
rope for Number of wire breaks over the length of one pitch after which the
tension rope should be discarded

Up to 9 14 7 23 12
9-10 16 8 26 13
10-12 18 9 29 14
12-14 20 10 32 16
Note 14-16
: 6x19 means the wire
22 rope constricted
11 from 6 number35of strand and 1917
number
Aboveof16
wire in each strand.
24 12 38 19
Safety factor and allowable broken wires as to the
construction of wire rope for cranes and hoists.
Initial Rope construction
factor 6×19=114+1C 6×37=222+1C 6×61=366+1C 18×19=342+1C
of
safety Cross Parallel Cross Parallel Cross Parall Cross Parallel
laid laid laid laid laid el laid laid laid

Number of wire breaks over the length of one pitch after

which the rope should be discarded

Up to 6 12 6 22 11 36 18 36 18
6-7 14 7 26 13 38 19 38 19
Above 7 16 8 30 15 40 20 40 20
 Steel wire rope selection
Steel wire ropes are subjected to;-
 Tension
 Bending
 Twisting
 Compression and
 Rubbing
Wear or abrasion of outer wires
Experimental:
 wire ropes are affected by fatigue.
 A wire can withstand only a definite number of bends
during service life
 Cont. …
Depending on the number of bends, the corresponding
rope life can be found from the ratios:-

where Dmin = minimum diameter of pulley or drum

d = rope diameter
δ = wire diameter
 At the constant ratios (Dmin /d and Dmin/δ) rope life is approximately
inversely proportional to the number of bends, where one bend equals
the transition of the rope from its straight position into a bent or from
a bent position to a straight one.

 Reverse bending reduces the rope life approximately double of the

straight (single) one or it is equal to two single bends towards the
same side.
 Number of bends and rope life
Rope life is inversely
proportional to number of bends
one bend = transmission of rope
from straight to bend or vise versa
Reverse bend = two single bends
Number of bends obtained by the
number of points (pulleys and
drums) where the rope runs on and
off,
Total number of bends in a
symmetrical system with
compensating pulley is half the
number of bends.
Bends in a compensating pulley
Number of bends =5
are not counted
 Examples

3 7
Cont. …
 Mechanics of wire rope
Table : Value of Dmin/d as a function of Number of bends
No. of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
bends
Dmin/d 16 20 23 25 26.5 28 30 31
No. of 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
bends
Dmin/d 32 33 34 35 36 37 37.5 38
 Strength of wire rope
On the basis of the accepted load suspension method we
use the above Table to find D min/d. The area of the wire
rope is the sum of the cross-sectional area of each
individual wire multiplied by a filling factor of 2.25.
This is to compensate for the area of the core material and
the area in-between the wires (true only for one-size wire
ropes).
 Strength of wire rope
 Area  A wire that passes over
bend experience bending as well as
tensile stress.

𝑑 = 1.5𝛿 𝑖
Strength of wire rope
1 Direct stress –due to an axial load lifted and weight of
the rope.
stress = force/area
2 Bending stress –when the rope wind round the sheave
or drum then the bending stress are induced in the wire
which is tensile at the top and compressive at the lower
side of wire.
Bending stress=
 Total sum
Cont. …
 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎𝑏𝑟 = 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 [𝐾𝑔𝑓/𝑐𝑚2]
 𝐾 = 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦
 𝑆 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 [𝐾𝑔𝑓]
 𝐴 = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 [𝑐𝑚2]
 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎,[𝑐𝑚4].
 𝑀 = 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐾𝑔𝑓. 𝑐𝑚
 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 [𝑐𝑚].
 𝐸′ = 3/8 𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
Cont. …
 Cont. …
 For ropes most frequently used In hoisting machinery,
except compound laid ropes
 Cont. …
 For wire ropes subjected to only tensile loading:
 Cont. …
 The minimum permissible diameter of a drum or pulley
is found;-
Dmin = e x d Drive Duty K e
Hand Light(L) 4.5 18
where d = rope diameter [mm]
e = factor depending on the Light(L) 5.0 20

rope construction and Medium (M) 5.5 25

Power
duty of hoisting mechanism Heavy (H) 6.0 30
Dmin = minimum pulley or drum Very Heavy(VH) 6.0 30
diameter

 The diameter of the compensating pulley is considered to be 40%

less than the diameter of the rotating pulleys carrying the load.
Values of pulley efficiency
Single pulley: Multiple pulley: Efficiency of
No. of No. of rotating
rotating pulleys Sliding friction Rolling friction
pulleys

1 2 0.951 0.971

2 4 0.906 0.945

3 6 0.861 0.918

4 8 0.823 0.892

5 10 0.784 0.873
 EXAMPLE
Given data:
S = 1800kgf
i = 222
 b  160kg / mm 2
K=6
Dmin/d = 23

S Nearest value of the area A is 174.4mm2

2
A( 222)   172.5mm d= 22mm
 b
K D 
d
 36000


 = 1mm
 min  Breading load(F)= 27900kgf
Wire ropes for Materials Handling Equipment (According to DIN 655)
Design (DIN655) Rope dia. Wire dia. Metal cross- Weight (kgf/m) Strength of the wire rope in (kgf) if the strength of the
d 5% (mm)  (mm) section 5% wire in (kgf/mm2)
(mm2)
130 kgf/mm2 160 kgf/mm2 180 kgf/mm2

6x19=114 wires 6.5 0.4 14.3 0.15 1860 2300 2550

+1core
8.0 0.5 22.4 0.21 2900 3600 4050
A
9.5 0.6 32.2 0.30 4200 5150 5800

12.5 0.8 57.3 0.54 7450 9150 10300

16.0 1.0 89.5 0.85 11650 14300 16100

19.0 1.2 128.9 1.22 16750 20600 23200

22.0 1.4 175.5 1.66 22800 28050 31600

6x37=222 wires 10 0.45 35.3 0.34 4600 5650 6350

+1core
13 0.60 62.8 0.59 8150 10050 11300
B
16 0.75 98.1 0.93 12750 15700 17650

22 1.00 174.4 1.65 22650 27900 31400

24 1.20 251.1 2.38 32650 40200 45200

30 1.50 392.3 3.72 51000 62750 70600

40 1.80 564.9 5.36 73450 90400 101700

8x37=296 wires 16 0.6 83.7 0.84 10900 13400 15050

+1core
19 0.7 113.9 1.14 14800 18200 20500
C
21 0.8 148.8 1.49 19350 23800 26800

27 1.0 232.5 2.32 30250 37200 41850

32 1.2 334.8 3.35 43500 53550 60250

40 1.5 523.1 5.24 68000 83700 94150

 Fastening chains and ropes
1. Hemp ropes:- recommended fastening method;-
 The rope is secured in a tapered socket so as to attach it to any part of
the hoisting mechanism. The sequence of operation is depicted
Hemp rope slings
(knots)
 2. Welded load chains.
 A split yoke and a bolt are used to attach the chain to the hook. In the
case of fastening two chains strands a crosspiece and forked eyes is
implemented
For two chains
For a single chain
split yoke & bolt crosspiece & forked eyes
Chain slings
 3. Fastening of roller chains;-
Roller chains are connected to the trolley frame by means of a special
link having bigger pitch and hole for bolted connection. This is to say
that the pitch is greater than L1 and the hole diameter d1 is bigger than
the nominal pin diameter
4. Fastening wire rope
 Steel wire rope slings
• Steel wire rope slings are used for handling heavy loads.
 In comparison to chain slings they weigh less, but are too rigid to
twist. Care must be taken when handling objects with sharp edges
so as not to damage the slings.
safety factor
>10 for slings passed around the load and
>6 for wire that do not enclose the load
Mechanics of tapered wire rope sockets
 Cont.
Review

What is bearing stress ?

Bearing stress is contact pressure between
separated bodies .it is different from compressive
stress because compressive stress is the internal
stress caused by the compressive force.
Mechanics of tapered wire rope sockets
Cont. …
• Socket wall thickness
LOAD SUSPENSION APPLIANCES

• The tension in the slings are functions of included

angle between the sling legs.
• If the load is suspended from two legs of sling, the
tension in each leg will be .
Q
S 
2 cos 
 CONT’D
For a four leg sling loaded symmetrically
Q
S1  S 2  S 3  S 4 
4 cos 
h
We know that cos  
l
Ql
Thus S1  S 2  S 3  S 4 
4h

For m legs S 
1
cos 

Q
m
 K
Q
m

1
Where, K 
cos 