Physiology of respiratory System

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
 Respiration
• Respiration
• Gas Exchange Has Two Component;
1. External respiration
2. Internal respiration
External / internal/Ventilation respiration

• video
 GAS TRANSPORT IN THE
BLOOD

· Oxygen transport in the blood

· Inside red blood cells attached to
hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
· A small amount is carried dissolved in the
plasma
 GAS TRANSPORT IN THE
BLOOD

· Carbon dioxide transport in the blood

· Most is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
· A small amount is carried inside red blood
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding
sites than those of oxygen
Thorax and Chest Wall
 Thorax and Chest Wall
• Along the posterior aspect of the thorax, ribs
articulate with the 12 thoracic vertebrae at the
costotransverse and costovertebral joints.
• Along the anterior aspect of the thoracic cage, the first
to seventh ribs articulate directly with the sternum via
the costal cartilage.
• The eighth to tenth ribs have cartilaginous
attachments to the rib above
• Eleventh and twelfth are floating ribs
 Mechanics of Ventilation
Movements of the Thorax
• Each rib has its own pattern of movement, but
generalizations can be made.

• The thorax enlarges in all three planes of

movement during inspiration.
 Increase in the AP dimension.
• A forward and upward
movement of the
sternum and upper ribs=
pump-handle motion.
• The thoracic spine
extends (straightens),
enabling greater
excursion of the sternum.
 Increase in the transverse (lateral)
dimension.
• Elevation and outward turning of the lateral
(midshaft) portions of the ribs = bucket handle
motion.
• The lower ribs (8–10) also flare or open outward,
increasing the subcostal angle = caliper motion.
• The angle at the costochondral junction also
increases, making the rib segments longer during
inspiration.
 Increase in vertical dimension.
• The central tendon of the diaphragm descends as
the muscle contracts = piston action.
• Elevation of the ribs increases the vertical
dimension of the thorax and improves the
effectiveness of the diaphragm.
• At the end of inspiration, the muscles relax and
elastic recoil causes the diaphragm to move
superiorly. The ribs return to their resting position.
 Movement of Air
• During inspiration, as the thorax enlarges, the
pressure inside the lungs (alveolar pressure)
becomes lower than the atmospheric pressure, and
air rushes into the lungs.
• At the end of inspiration, the muscles relax, and the
elastic recoil of the lungs pushes the air out, resulting
in expiration.
• N O T E : Breathing exercises are designed to
affect the movement of air to and from the lungs.
 Compliance
• Compliance = Distensibility of tissue or how
easily the lungs inflate during inspiration.
• With regard to ventilation, it relates to how
easily the lungs inflate or the chest wall
expands during inspiration.
• Normal lungs are highly distensible
(compliant)…compliance changes with age
and the presence of disease.
• During the normal aging process lung tissue
becomes more compliant.
• Diseases of the pulmonary system that cause
fibrosis of tissues (alveolar or pleural) make
the lungs rigid (i.e., less compliant), whereas
emphysema, one of the chronic obstructive
diseases, makes lung tissue more compliant to
pressures
 Airway Resistance
• The amount of resistance to the flow of air through the
airways depends on a number of factors.
• The bifurcation and branching of airways is a source of
airway resistance.
• The size (diameter) of the lumen of each airway also
influences resistance.
• The diameter of the lumen can be decreased by mucus
or edema in the airways, contraction of smooth
muscles, and the degree of elasticity or distensibility of
the lung parenchyma.
• Normally, the airways widen during inspiration
and narrow during expiration.
• As the diameter of the airway decreases, the
resistance to airflow increases.
• With diseases that cause bronchospasm
(asthma) or increased mucus production (chronic
bronchitis), airway resistance is even greater
than normal, particularly during expiration.
 Flow Rates
• Flow rates indicate measurements of the
amount of air moved in or out of the airways
over a period of time.
• Flow rates, related to airflow resistance, reflect
the ease with which ventilation occurs.
• Expiratory flow rate is determined by the
volume of air exhaled divided by the amount of
time it takes for the volume of gas to be
exhaled.
• Flow rates are altered as the result of diseases
that affect the respiratory tree and chest wall.
• For example, with chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, the expiratory flow rate is
decreased in comparison to normal.
• That is, it takes a longer than the normal
amount of time to exhale a specific volume of
air.
Regulation of Respiration
To accomplish ventilation & respiration, the
respiratory system is regulated by many neural,
chemical and non-chemical mechanism,

• Neural Control
• Chemical Control
• Non-chemical Control
• Control of bronchial smooth Muscle
 Neural Control
• Respiration is controlled by two separate neural
mechanisms:
– Automatic Respiration (Medullary respiratory System
in the brain stem)
• Controls rhythmicity of the breathing.
– Voluntary Respiration (Pneumotaxic center located in
the Pons)
• Controls rate & depth of breathing.
• Cerebral cortex to Motor neurons of respiratory muscles.
 Chemical Control
• Arterial levels of CO2
(PCO2) and of O2 (PO2)
can modify the rate and
depth of respiration.
• Chemical control of
respiration is controlled
by specialized cells on
the carotid arteries and
aortic arch. (caroted
and aortic bodies).
 Non Chemical Influences
The rate and depth of respiration can also
influenced by other factors such as:
• Intra-pulmonary factors.
• Psychological Factors.
• Pain & visceral reflexes
 Control of bronchial smooth Muscle
• Bronchial smooth muscles is under both
nervous (sympathetic & parasympathetic
autonomic nerves) and humeral control and
reacts to many non-physiological substances.
• Nervous Control:
– Parasympathetic nerves (contraction of smooth
muscles – narrowing of airways
– Sympathetic nerves –relaxation of smooth
muscles – increase in airway diameter.
• Hormonal Control:
– Liberation of the hormones (catecholamines,
principally adrenaline) – Medulla of Adrenal Glands
– relaxation of the smooth muscles.
• Other Agents:
– Bronchoconstriction agents may be released
directly into the lungs following lung injury or
infection.
– In susceptible individuals the inhalation of pollens,
dust or other allergens – increase smooth muscle
tone and edema of the airways due to local release
of substances, such as, Histamine
• Effects of Gas Tension:
–Local: Changes in O2 & CO2
tension in alveolar gas and in pul.
Capillary blood alters bronchial
smooth muscle tone by direct
effect on the muscle cells.