Water and the

Major Minerals

Chapter 12
 Water and the Body Fluids,
Part 1
• Water constitutes majority of body weight
• Body composition
• Females
• Obese people
• Elderly
Water and the Body Fluids,
Part 2
• Carries nutrients and • Acts as a lubricant
waste products and cushion
• Maintains structure • Aids in regulation of
of large molecules body temperature
• Participates in • Maintains blood
metabolic reactions volume
• Serves as a solvent
 Water Balance and
Recommended Intake, Part 1
• Cellular fluids
• Intracellular fluid
• Extracellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid
• Intravascular
fluid
 Water Balance and
Recommended Intake, Part 2
• Water intake
• Thirst and satiety
• Mouth, hypothalamus, and nerves
• Thirst response lags behind the body’s need
for water
• Dehydration symptoms
• Water intoxication
• Symptoms
 Signs of Dehydration

Table 12-1 Signs of Dehydration

Body Weight
Lost (%) Symptoms
1-2 Thirst, fatigue, weakness, vague discomfort, loss of appetite
Impaired physical performance, dry mouth, reduction in urine, flushed skin, impatience,
3-4
apathy
Difficulty concentrating, headache, irritability, sleepiness, impaired temperature
5-6
regulation, increased respiratory rate
7-10 Dizziness, spastic muscles, loss of balance, delirium, exhaustion, collapse

NOTE: The onset and severity of symptoms at various percentages of body weight lost depend on the activity,
fitness level, degree of acclimation, temperature, and humidity. If not corrected, dehydration can lead to death.
 Water Balance and
Recommended Intake, Part 3
• Sources
• Water
• Beverages
• Foods
• Condensation reactions
• Oxidation of energy-yielding nutrients
 Percentage of Water in
Selected Foods
TABLE 12-2 Percentage of Water in Selected Foods
100% Water
90-99% Fat-free milk, strawberries, watermelon, lettuce, cabbage, celery, spinach, broccoli
80-89% Fruit juice, yogurt, apples, grapes, oranges, carrots
70-79% Shrimp, bananas, corn, potatoes, avocados, cottage cheese, ricotta cheese
60-69% Pasta, legumes, salmon, ice cream, chicken breast
50-59% Ground beef, hot dogs, feta cheese
40-49% Pizza
30-39% Cheddar cheese, bagels, bread
20-29% Pepperoni sausage, cake, biscuits
10-19% Butter, margarine, raisins
1-9% Crackers, cereals, pretzels, taco shells, peanut butter, nuts
0% Oils, sugars
 Water Balance

Table 12-3 Water Balance

Water Sources Amount (mL)  Water Losses Amount (mL) 

Beverages 550 to 1500 Kidneys (urine) 500 to 1400

Foods 700 to 1000 Skin (sweat) 450 to 900

Metabolism 200 to 300 Lungs (breath) 350

    Gl tract (feces) 150

Total 1450 to 2800 Total 1450 to 2800

Note: For perspective, 100 milliliters is a little less than one-half cup and 1000 milliliters is
a little more than 1 quart (1mL = 0.03 oz).
 Water Balance and
Recommended Intake, Part 4
• Losses
• Minimum excretion each day as urine
• Vapor from lungs
• Sweat from skin
• Loss in feces
• Recommendations
• Needs vary
• AI for total water
 Water Balance and
Recommended Intake, Part 5
• Health effects
• Meet bodily needs
• Protect against urinary stones & constipation
• Concentration, alertness, and short-term
memory
• Type of water
• Hard water
• Soft water
 Blood Volume and Blood
Pressure, Part 1
• Kidneys are central to blood volume and
pressure maintenance
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland
• Water-conserving hormone
• Stimulates kidneys to reabsorb water
• Events trigger thirst
A Nephron, One of the Kidney’s
Many Functioning Units
 Blood Volume and Blood
Pressure, Part 2
• Renin
• Enzyme released by kidney cells when blood
pressure is low
• Kidneys reabsorb sodium
• Water retention
• Angiotensin
• Renin hydrolyzes angiotensinogen to
angiotensin I
• Convert to active form – angiotensin II
 Blood Volume and Blood
Pressure, Part 3
• Aldosterone
• Released from adrenal glands
• Release stimulated by angiotensin II
• Signals kidneys
• Excrete potassium
• Retain sodium
How the Body Regulates Blood
Volume & Blood Pressure
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance ,
Part 1
• Fluid balance
• Two-thirds inside the cells
• One-third outside the cells
• Dissociation of salt
• Sodium – cation
• Chloride – anion
• Conduct electricity
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance ,
Part 2
• Electrolytes attract water
• Water molecules have net charge of zero
• Water follows electrolytes
• Electrolytes predominantly outside of cell
• Sodium and chloride
• Electrolytes predominantly inside of cell
• Potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate
• Selectively permeable membranes
Water Dissolves Salts and
Follows Electrolytes
A Cell and Its Electrolytes
Osmosis
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance ,
Part 3
• Proteins regulate fluid movement
• Attract water
• Transport proteins
• Passage of ions across cell membranes
• Sodium-potassium pump
• Regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance
• Two sites
• GI tract
• Kidneys
 Fluid and Electrolyte
Imbalance , Part 1
• Causes of imbalance
• Prolonged vomiting or diarrhea
• Heavy sweating
• Burns
• Traumatic wounds
• Some medications
• An imbalance can result in a medical
emergency
 Fluid and Electrolyte
Imbalance , Part 2
• Solutes lost depend on why fluid is lost
• Vomiting or diarrhea – sodium
• Tumor development – potassium
• Replacing lost fluids and electrolytes
• Plain cool water and regular foods
• Special replacement fluids
 Acid-Base Balance , Part 1

• Regulation of acidity
• Narrow pH range to avoid life-threatening
consequences
• Denaturation of proteins
• Concentration of hydrogen ions
• High hydrogen concentration – acidic
• Low hydrogen concentration – basic
The pH Scale
 Acid-Base Balance , Part 2

• Body defense against pH fluctuation

• Buffers in blood
• Bicarbonate
• Carbonic acid
• Respiration in lungs
• Excretion in kidneys
• Bicarbonate
Bicarbonate-Carbonic Acid
Buffer System
The Minerals – An Overview ,
Part 1
• Major vs. trace minerals
• Variation in amounts needed
• Inorganic elements
• Always retain chemical identity
• Cannot be destroyed by heat, air, acid, or
mixing
• Body’s absorption and handling
• Freely or with carriers
Minerals in a 60-kilogram
(132 pound) Human Body
The Minerals – An Overview ,
Part 2
• Bioavailability
• Varies
• Food binders
• Nutrient interactions
• Presence of other minerals
• Absorption, metabolism, and excretion
• Varied roles
 Sodium , Part 1

• Roles in body
• Principal cation of extracellular fluid
• Primary regulator of volume
• Acid-base balance
• Nerve impulse transmission
• Muscle contraction
• Sodium travels freely in the blood
• Kidneys: filter out and return what is needed
 Sodium , Part 2

• Recommendations
• Diets rarely lack sodium
• UL for adults
• Average intake in U.S. exceeds the UL
• Hypertension
• Salt vs. sodium or chloride alone
• Salt intake
• DASH diet
 Sodium , Part 3

• Bone Loss (osteoporosis)

• High salt intake is associated with increased
calcium excretion
• Potassium as protective factor
• DASH diet recommendation
• Food sources
• Processed foods
• More sodium
• Less potassium
 What Processing Does to the
Sodium and Potassium Contents of
Foods
 Sodium , Part 4

• Deficiency
• Conditions causing a deficiency
• Hyponatremia
• Toxicity
• Acute
• Edema and high blood pressure
• Chronic
• Hypertension
 Chloride , Part 1

• Essential nutrient
• Roles in the body
• Major anion of extracellular fluids
• Moves passively across membranes
• Associates with sodium and potassium
• Helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance
• Part of hydrochloric acid
 Chloride , Part 2

• Recommendations and intakes

• Abundant in processed foods
• Recommendations are slightly higher, but still
equivalent to those of sodium
• Deficiency and toxicity
• Diets rarely lack chloride
• Conditions leading to deficiency
• Toxicity – due to water deficiency
 Potassium , Part 1

• Principal intracellular cation

• Roles in the body
• Helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance
• Helps maintain cell integrity
• Aids in nerve impulse transmission and
muscle contraction
 Potassium , Part 2

• Recommendations and intakes

• Fresh foods are richest
sources
• AI for potassium
• Increase fruit and vegetable
consumption
• Hypertension
• Diets low in potassium
• Diets high in potassium
• Risk of stroke
 Potassium , Part 3

• Deficiency • Toxicity
• Increase in blood • No UL
pressure • Overconsumption
• Salt sensitivity of potassium salts
• Kidney stones or supplements
• Bone turnover • Certain diseases or
• Irregular heartbeats treatments
• Muscle weakness • Kidneys accelerate
excretion
• Glucose
intolerance
Potassium in Selected Foods
Food Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
(Best Source per of Potassium
kclalorie) (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 40
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 30
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 20
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 90
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 220
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 180
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 510
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 400
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 460
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 230
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 120
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 340
 
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 380
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 360
Cheddar cheese 1 ½ oz(171 kcal) Milk and milk products 40
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 110
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 400
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 230
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 230
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 190
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 210
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 200
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 60
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Squash, acorn ½ c baked (69 kcal) Vegetables 540
Soybeans ½ c cooked (149 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 430
Artichoke 1 (60 kcal) Vegetables 420
 Calcium, Part 1

• Most abundant mineral in the body

• Adequate intake
• Grows a healthy skeleton in early life
• Helps minimize bone loss in later life
• Majority of body’s calcium is in bones and
teeth
• Part of bone structure
• Calcium bank
 Calcium, Part 2

• In bones
• Calcium salts form crystals
• Hydroxyapatite
• Strength and rigidity to maturing bones
• Bone remodeling
• In teeth
• Fluoride stabilizes calcium crystals in teeth
 Calcium, Part 3

• In body fluids
• Helps to maintain normal blood pressure
• Extracellular calcium
• Participates in blood clotting
• Intracellular calcium
• Regulation of muscle contraction
• Transmission of nerve impulses
• Secretion of hormones
• Activation of some enzyme reactions
 Calcium, Part 4

• Disease prevention
• Hypertension
• Blood cholesterol
• Diabetes
• Colon cancer
• Obesity
• May help maintain healthy body weight
 Calcium, Part 5

• Calcium balance
• Involves system of hormones and vitamin D
• Parathyroid hormone & calcitonin
• Organ system response
• Intestines
• Bones
• Kidneys
• Calcium rigor
• Calcium tetany
Calcium Balance
 Calcium, Part 6

• Absorption
• Adults absorb about 30% of the calcium
ingested
• Stomach’s acidity – calcium soluble
• Vitamin D – calcium-binding protein
• Efficiency and inadequate intakes
• Factors that enhance calcium absorption
• Factors that inhibit calcium absorption
 Calcium, Part 7

• Recommendations
• Based on amount needed to retain calcium in
bones
• Peak bone mass
• Set high enough to accommodate 30%
absorption rate
• UL has been established
• Adverse effects from supplements
 Maintaining Blood Calcium
from the Diet & from the Bones
 Calcium, Part 8

• Food products
• Milk and milk products
• Conceal milk products in foods
• Consequences of drinking too little milk
• Other foods
• Bioavailability
• Fortified juices and foods
• Calcium and iron
Calcium in Selected Foods
Food Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount of
(Best Source per kclalorie) Calcium (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 20
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 0
Spaghetti pasta ½ c ccooked (99 kcal) Grains 2
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 90
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 40
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 15
1 medium baked w/skin (133 Vegetables 10
Potato
kcal)
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 15
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 5
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 60
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 15
1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 20
Watermelon
 
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 300
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 450
Cheddar cheese 1 ½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 310
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 80
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 40
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 10
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 20
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 10
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 15
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Sardines, with bones 3 oz canned (176 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 430
Bok choy (Chinese cabbage) ½ c cooked (10 kcal) Vegetables 80
Almonds 1 oz (167 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 80
 Calcium, Part 9

• Deficiency
• Peak bone mass by late 20s
• All adults lose bone with age
• Begins between 30 and 40 years of age
• Osteopenia
• Osteoporosis
• Silent disease
• Blood samples offer no clues
Phases of Bone Development
Throughout Life
 Phosphorus, Part 1

• Second most abundant mineral in body

• Hydroxyapatite crystals of bone and teeth
• Roles in body
• Part of major buffer system
• Part of DNA and RNA
• Assists in energy metabolism
• Helps transport lipids in the blood
• Structural component of cell membranes
 Phosphorus, Part 2

• Recommendations and intakes

• Deficiencies are unlikely
• Best sources
• Foods rich in proteins
• Phosphoric acid intake and bone density
• UL has been established
Phosphorus in Selected Foods
Food Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
(Best Source per of Phosphorus
kclalorie) (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 75
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 15
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 40
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 90
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 50
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 25
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 70
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 40
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 30
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 25
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 20
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 30
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 230
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 350
Cheddar cheese 1 ½ c (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 220
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 170
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 100
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 330
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 110
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 110
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 195
Tuna, canned in water (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 140
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 80
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Liver 3 oz (184 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 520
Almonds 1 oz(165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Candy bar 2.2 oz (278 kcal) Miscellaneous 130
 Magnesium, Part 1

• Body locations
• More than half is found in the bones
• Reservoir
• Muscles and soft tissues
• Extracellular fluid
 Magnesium, Part 2

• Roles in body
• Maintains bone health
• Part of protein making machinery
• Necessary for energy metabolism
• Participates in enzyme systems
• Catalyst in ATP production
• Muscle contraction and blood clotting
• Supports normal function of immune system
 Magnesium, Part 3

• Intakes
• Average dietary intake for U.S. adults is
below recommendations
• Hard water contributions
• Sources
• Legumes, seeds, and nuts
• Leafy green vegetables
Magnesium in Selected Foods
Food Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
(Best Source per of Magnesium
kclalorie) (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 30
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 5
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 15
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 20
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 20
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 10
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 35
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 25
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 35
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 15
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 10
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 35
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 35
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 45
Cheddar cheese 1 ½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 15
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 10
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 49
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 50
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 40
Tofu (soybean curd) 1/2 c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 35
Ground beef, lean 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 20
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 25
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 25
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Halibut 3 oz baked (199 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 125
Cashews 1 oz (161 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 75
Artichoke 1 (60 kcal) Vegetables 75
 Magnesium, Part 4

• Deficiency
• Rarely occurs
• Occurs with diseases
• Causes tetany and impair central nervous
system activity
• Hypertension
• Protective factor
• Toxicity
 Sulfate

• Sources of sulfate
• Food and beverages
• Amino acids
• Methionine
• Cysteine
• No recommended intake
• Normal protein intake
Osteoporosis and
Calcium

Highlight 12
 Introduction

• Osteoporosis becomes apparent in the later

years
• Develops earlier without warning
• Osteoporosis is one of the most prevalent
diseases in U.S.
• Burden of disease
 Bone development and
Disintegration, Part 1
• Cortical bone
• Hard outer shell
• Gives up calcium to blood
• Slow and steady rate
• Trabecular bone
• Lacy matrix
• Give up calcium when diet runs short
• Impacted by day-to-day intake and need for
calcium
Healthy and Osteoporotic
Trabecular Bone
 Bone development and
Disintegration, Part 2
• Dowager’s hump
• DEXA scan
• Risk factors and
protective factors
Risk Factors for Osteoporosis
TABLE H12-1 Risk Factors for Osteoporosis
Nonmodifiable
 Female gender
 Older age
 Small frame
 Caucasian, Asian, or
Hispanic/Latino
 Family history of osteoporo­sis or
fractures
 Personal history of fractures
 Estrogen deficiency in women
(amenorrhea or menopause,
especially early or surgically
induced); tes­tosterone deficiency
in men
Modifiable
 Sedentary lifestyle
 Diet inadequate in calcium and
vitamin D
 Diet excessive in protein, sodium,
caffeine
 Cigarette smoking
 Alcohol abuse
 Low body weight
 Certain medications, such as
glucocorticoids and anticonvulsants
 Age and Bone Calcium

• Two major stages of life

• Childhood and adolescence
• Bone-acquiring stage
• Late adulthood
• Bone-losing decades
• Maximizing bone mass
• Minimizing bone loss
• Calcium and vitamin D status
Bone Losses over Time
Compared
 Gender and Hormones

• Men have greater bone density and smaller

losses later in life
• Women and menopause
• Estrogen
• Up to 20% bone loss in 6 to 8 years after
menopause
• Drugs
• Antiresorptive agents
• Anabolic agents
 Genetics and Race/Ethnicity

• Osteoporosis may, in part, be hereditary

• Exact role of genetics is unclear
• Race/Ethnicity
• Groups at high risk
• Environmental factors influence gene
expression
 Physical Activity and Body
Weight
• Important factor supporting bone growth
during adolescence
• Muscle strength and bone strength work
together
• Weight training or weight-bearing endurance
activities
• Being overweight may protect bones
• Risks vs. benefits of being overweight
 Smoking and Alcohol

• Smoking decreases bone density

• Can be reversed with smoking cessation
• Benefits seen in 6 weeks
• Alcohol abuse and osteoporosis
• Increased level of fractures
• Moderate alcohol consumption
• May increase bone mineral density
 Dietary Nutrients

• Calcium
• Adequate levels during growing year
• Recommended levels
• Protein
• Vitamins D and K
• Vitamins C and A
• Salt
• Omega-3 fatty acids
 Supplements

• Lack of calcium-rich foods

• Calcium supplement with vitamin D
• May increase risk of heart attacks
• Calcium supplement forms
• Natural products and lead content
• Questions
• How much calcium provided?
• How body absorbs and uses the calcium?