Chapter 4

Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions

MA Ruhai
马汝海
Department of Chemistry,
CMU

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 单选题 1分

Balance the following equation:

B2O3(s) + HF(l)  BF3(g) + H2O(l)

A B2O3(s) + 6HF(l)  2BF3(g) + 3H2O(l)

B B2O3(s) + H6F6(l)  B2F6(g) + H6O3(l)

C B2O3(s) + 2 HF(l)  2BF3(g) + H2O(l)

D B2O3(s) + 6HF(l)  2BF3(g) + 6H2O(l)

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 Water as a Solvent

• Water is a polar molecule

– since it has uneven electron distribution
– and a bent molecular shape.
• Water readily dissolves a variety of
substances.
• Water interacts strongly with its
solutes and often plays an active role
in aqueous reactions.

Electron distribution in
molecules of H and H O.
2 2

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 Figure 4.2 An ionic compound dissolving in water.

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 Figure 4.3 The electrical conductivity of ionic solutions.

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 Concentration of Solutions & Molarity

• Many reactions occur in solution.

• A solution consists of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent.
• The concentration of a solution is given by the quantity
of solute present in a given quantity of solution.
• Molarity (M) is often used to express concentration.

Molarity = moles solute mol solute

M=
liters of solution L soln

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 Figure 4.4 Summary of mass-mole-number-volume
relationships in solution.

mass of substance(m B ) mB
amount of substance (n B )= ; nB =
molar mass(M B ) MB

nB
cB 
V

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 Sample Problem 4.4 Calculating Mass of Solute in a Given
Volume of Solution
PROBLEM: How many grams of solute are in 1.75 L of 0.460 M
sodium monohydrogen phosphate buffer solution?

PLAN: Calculate the moles of solute using Volume of solution

the given molarity and volume. multiply by M
Convert moles to mass using the
molar mass of the solute. Moles of solute
multiply by M

SOLUTION: n （ Na2HPO4)= Mass of solute

mB 0.460 moles
nB = 1.75 L x = 0.805 mol Na2HPO4
MB 1L

m （ Na2HPO4)=0.805 mol Na2HPO4 x 141.96 g Na2HPO4 = 114 g

1 mol Na2HPO4

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 Sample Problem 4.5 Determining Amount (mol) of Ions in a
Solution
PROBLEM: What amount (mol) of each ion is in 35 mL of 0.84 M
zinc chloride?
PLAN: We write an equation that shows 1 mol of compound dissociating
into ions. We convert molarity and volume to moles of zinc
chloride and use the dissociation equation to convert moles of
compound to moles of ions.
SOLUTION: ZnCl2 (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2Cl– (aq)
Converting from volume (mL) and molarity (mol/L) to amount (mol) of
compound: 1L 0.84 mol ZnCl2
n(ZnCl2) = 35 mL x x
1000 mL 1L
nB
cB  ; nB  V  cB = 2.9 x 10–2 mol ZnCl2
V
2 mol Cl–
n(Cl–)= 2.9 x 10–2 mol ZnCl2 x = 5.8 x 10–2 mol Cl–
1 mol ZnCl2
2.9 x 10–2 mol Zn2+ is also present.
CHECK: The relative numbers of moles of ions are consistent with the
formula for ZnCl2: 0.029 mol Zn2+/0.058 mol Cl– = 1 Zn2+ / 2 Cl–, or ZnCl2.

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 单选题 1分

What is the molarity of an aqueous solution that

contains 0.715 mol of glycine (H2NCH2COOH)
(M=75.07g/mol) in 495 mL?

A 0.00952 M

B 1.44 M

C 0.692 M

D 0.152 M

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 WRITING EQUATIONS FOR AQUEOUS
IONIC
REACTIONS

spectator ions appear in the same form on both sides of the

equation and are not involved in the actual chemical change

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 Precipitation Reactions

• In a precipitation reaction two soluble ionic compounds

react to give an insoluble product, called a precipitate.

• The precipitate forms through the net removal of ions from

solution.

Ca2+ (aq) + 2F– (aq) → CaF2 (s)

• It is possible for more than one precipitate to form in such

a reaction.

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 Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form
NaI （ s ） + KNO3(s)
1. Note the ions present in the reactants.

2. Consider all possible cation-anion combinations.

3. Use the solubility rules to decide whether any of the ion combinations is
insoluble.
– Any insoluble combination identifies a precipitate that will form.

What happens if you substitute a solution of Pb(NO3)2

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4-14
4-15
 单选题 1分

Which one of the following ionic compounds

is insoluble in water?

A Na3PO4

B AgNO3

C NaCl

D CaCO3
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4-16
 单选题 1分

Which one of the following ionic compounds

is soluble in water?

A Na2S

B PbI2

C CuS

D Ca3(PO4)2

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 单选题 1分

Select the correct name and chemical formula for the

precipitate that forms when the following reactants are mixed.
CuCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 

A copper(I) carbonate, Cu2CO3

B copper(II) carbonate, Cu2CO3

C copper(II) carbonate, CuCO3

D sodium chloride, NaCl

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4-18
 Acid-Base Reactions
An acid is a substance that produces H+ ions when
dissolved in H2O.
Arrhenius‘
HO
HX → H+ (aq) + X- (aq) definition
2

A base is a substance that produces OH- ions when

dissolved in H2O.
Arrhenius‘
HO
MOH → M+ (aq) + OH- (aq) definition
2

An acid-base reaction is also called a neutralization reaction.

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 Figure 4.11 The H+ ion as a solvated hydronium ion.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

H+ interacts strongly with H2O, forming H3O+ in aqueous solution.

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 Figure 4.12 Acids and bases as electrolytes.

Strong acids and strong bases dissociate completely into ions in

aqueous solution.
They are strong electrolytes and conduct well in solution.

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 Figure 4.12 Acids and bases as electrolytes.

Weak acids and weak bases dissociate very little into ions in aqueous
solution.
They are weak electrolytes and conduct poorly in solution.

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 Sample Problem 4.13 Writing Ionic Equations for Acid-Base
Reactions

PROBLEM: Write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic

equations for the following acid-base reactions and identify
the spectator ions.

(a) hydrochloric acid (aq) + potassium hydroxide (aq) →

(b) strontium hydroxide (aq) + perchloric acid (aq) →
(c) barium hydroxide (aq) + sulfuric acid (aq) →

PLAN: All reactants are strong acids and bases (see Table 4.2). The
product in each case is H2O and an ionic salt.
Write the molecular reaction in each case and use the
solubility rules to determine if the product is soluble or not.

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 Sample Problem 4.13

SOLUTION:

(a) hydrochloric acid (aq) + potassium hydroxide (aq) →

Molecular equation:
HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) → KCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Total ionic equation:

H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + K+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

Net ionic equation:

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

Spectator ions are K+ and Cl-

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 Acid-Base Titrations
• In a titration, the concentration of one solution is used to
determine the concentration of another.
• In an acid-base titration, a standard solution of base is
usually added to a sample of acid of unknown molarity.
• An acid-base indicator has different colors in acid and
base, and is used to monitor the reaction progress.
• At the equivalence point, the mol of H+ from the acid
equals the mol of OH- ion produced by the base.
– Amount of H+ ion in flask = amount of OH- ion added
• The end point occurs when there is a slight excess of
base and the indicator changes color permanently.

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 Sample Problem 4.15 Calculating the Amounts of Reactants
and Products in an Acid-Base Reaction
PROBLEM: A 0.10 M HCl solution is used to simulate the acid
concentration of the stomach. How many liters of “stomach
acid” react with a tablet containing 0.10 g of magnesium
hydroxide?
PLAN: Write a balanced equation and convert the mass of Mg(OH)2 to
moles. Use the mole ratio to determine the moles of HCl, then
convert to volume using molarity.
Mass Mg(OH)2
divide by M
Amount (mol) Mg(OH)2
use mole ratio divide by M
Amount (mol) HCl Volume HCl

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 Sample Problem 4.15

SOLUTION:

Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

0.10 g Mg(OH)2 x 1 mol Mg(OH)2 = 1.7 x 10-3 mol Mg(OH)2

58.33 g Mg(OH)2

1.7 x 10-3 mol Mg(OH)2 x 2 mol HCl

= 3.4 x 10-3 mol HCl
1 mol Mg(OH)2

3.4x10-3 mol HCl x 1L HCl soln = 3.4 x 10-2 L HCl

0.10 mol HCl

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 Sample Problem 4.16 Finding the Concentration of Acid from a
Titration

PROBLEM: A 50.00 mL sample of HCl is titrated with 0.1524 M NaOH.

The buret reads 0.55 mL at the start and 33.87 mL at the end
point. Find the molarity of the HCl solution.
PLAN: Write a balanced equation for the reaction. Use the volume of
base to find mol OH-, then mol H+ and finally M for the acid.
volume of base
(difference in buret readings)
multiply by M of base
mol of OH-
use mole ratio as conversion factor

mol of H+ and acid

divide by volume (L) of acid
molarity (M) of acid
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 Sample Problem 4.16

SOLUTION: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

volume of base = 33.87 mL – 0.55 mL = 33.32 mL

33.32 mL soln x 1L x 0.1524 mol NaOH = 5.078 x 10-3 mol NaOH

103 mL 1 L soln

Since 1 mol of HCl reacts with 1 mol NaOH, the amount of HCl
= 5.078 x 10-3 mol.

5.078x10-3 mol HCl x 103 mL

= 0.1016 M HCl
50.00 mL 1L

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 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Oxidation is the loss of electrons.

The reducing agent loses electrons and is oxidized.

Reduction is the gain of electrons.

The oxidizing agent gains electrons and is reduced.

A redox reaction involves electron transfer.

Oxidation and reduction occur together.

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 Figure 4.16 The redox process in compound formation.

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 oxidation number (O.N.), or oxidation state, the
charge the atom would have if electrons were not
shared but were transferred completely.
the oxidation number for each element in a
binary ionic compound equals the ionic charge.

the oxidation number for each element in a covalent

compound (or in a polyatomic ion) is not as obvious
because the atoms don’t have whole charges.

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 Table 4.3 Rules for Assigning an Oxidation Number (O.N.)
General rules
1. For an atom in its elemental form (Na, O2, Cl2, etc.): O.N. = 0
2. For a monoatomic ion: O.N. = ion charge
3. The sum of O.N. values for the atoms in a compound equals zero. The sum
of O.N. values for the atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the ion’s charge.

Rules for Specific Atoms or Periodic Table Groups

1. For Group 1A(1): O.N. = +1 in all compounds

2. For Group 2A(2): O.N. = +2 in all compounds
3. For hydrogen: O.N. = +1 in combination with nonmetals
O.N. = -1 in combination with metals and boron
4. For fluorine: O.N. = -1 in all compounds
5. For oxygen: O.N. = -1 in peroxides
O.N. = -2 in all other compounds(except with F)
6. For Group 7A(17): O.N. = -1 in combination with metals, nonmetals
(except O), and other halogens lower in the group

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 Sample Problem 4.17 Determining the Oxidation Number of Each
Element in a Compound (or Ion)

PROBLEM: Determine the oxidation number (O.N.) of each element in

these species:
(a) zinc chloride (b) sulfur trioxide (c) nitric acid

PLAN: To determine whether a reaction is an oxidation-reduction

process, we use Table 4.3 to assign each atom an O.N. and
see if it changes as reactants are converted to products. If an
O.N. changes, we draw a tie-line from the atom on the left
side to the one on the right and note the change. In redox
reactions, a reactant is the reducing agent if it contains an
atom that is oxidized (O.N. increased from left to right in the
equation). A reactant is the reducing agent if it contains an
atom that is reduced (O.N. decreased from left to right in the
equation).

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Sample Problem 4.18

SOLUTION: (a) Assigning oxidation numbers:

oxidation

+6 +6
0 +1 –2 +3 –2 0
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2 (SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)

reduction

In this case, the O.N. of Al and H change, so this is a redox reaction.

The O.N. of Al increases from 0 to +3 (Al lost electrons), so Al was oxidized;

Al is the reducing agent.

The O.N. of H decreased from +1 to 0 (H gained an electron), H+ was

reduced; H2SO4 is the oxidizing agent.

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 Sample Problem 4.18
(b) Assigning oxidation numbers:

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

+1 –2 +1 +1 –2 +1
–2 +6 –2
+6 +1

This is not a redox reaction since no species change O.N.

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 Sample Problem 4.18

(c) Assigning oxidation numbers:

oxidation
–2 –2 –2

+2 +2 0 +4
PbO(s) + CO(g) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)

reduction

In this case, the O.N. of Pb and C change, so this is a redox reaction.

O.N. of Pb decreased from +2 to 0, so PbO was reduced; PbO is the
oxidizing agent.
O.N. of C increased from +2 to +4, so CO was oxidized; CO is the
reducing agent.

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 Figure 4.17 A summary of terminology for redox reactions.

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 Balancing Redox Equations
(oxidation number method)
1. Assign O.N.s to all atoms.
2. Identify the reactants that are oxidized and reduced.
3. Compute the numbers of electrons transferred, and
draw tie-lines from each reactant atom to the product
atom to show the change.
4. Multiply the numbers of electrons by factor(s) that make
the electrons lost equal to the electrons gained.
5. Use the factor(s) as balancing coefficients.
6. Complete the balancing by inspection and add states of
matter.

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 THE REVERSIBILITY OF REACTIONS
AND THE EQUILIBRIUM STATE

• So far, we have viewed reactions as transformations of reactants

into products that proceed until they are complete, that is, until the
limiting reactant is used up.
• However, many reactions stop before this happens because two
opposing reactions are taking place simultaneously: the forward
(left-to-right) reaction continues, but the reverse (right-to-left)
reaction occurs just as fast (at the same rate).
• At this point, no further changes appear in the amounts of reactants
or products, and the reaction mixture has reached dynamic
equilibrium. On the macroscopic level, the reaction is static, but it is
dynamic on the molecular level.

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 THE REVERSIBILITY OF REACTIONS
AND THE EQUILIBRIUM STATE

• 1 ） Every reaction is reversible if all the substances involved are

present.
• 2 ） As the amounts of products increase, the reactants begin to re-
form. When the reverse reaction occurs as rapidly as the forward
reaction, the amounts of the substances no longer change, and the
reaction mixture has reached dynamic equilibrium.
• 3 ） Weak acids and bases reach equilibrium in water with a very
small proportion of their molecules dissociated.
• 4 ） An aqueous ionic reaction “goes to completion” because a
product is removed (as a gas) or because products are formed that
react very slightly in a reverse reaction (usually water or a
precipitate).

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 单选题 1分

A standard solution of 0.243 M NaOH was used to

determine the concentration of a hydrochloric acid
solution. If 46.33 mL of NaOH is needed to neutralize
10.00 mL of the acid, what is the molar concentration
of the acid?
A 0.888 M

B 0.0524 M

C 1.13 M

D 2.26 M
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 单选题 1分

Select the best statement relating to the following

reaction:
2MnO2(s) + KClO3(aq) + 2KOH(aq)  2KMnO4(aq) +
KCl(aq) + H2O(l)

A Mn in MnO2 is oxidized.

B H in KOH is oxidized.

C Cl in KClO3 is the reducing agent.

D O in KClO3 is the oxidizing agent.

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