Theory of Relativity

Albert
Einstein

Physics 100
Chapt 18
watching a light flash go by
v

2k
The man on earth sees c =  
(& agrees with Maxwell)
 watching a light flash go by
v

If the man on the rocket sees c-v,

he disagrees with Maxwell
Do Maxwell’s Eqns only work in
one reference frame?

If so, this would be the rest frame

of the luminiferous Aether.
 If so, the speed of light should
change throughout the year

upstream,
downstream, light moves
light moves slower
faster “Aether wind”
 Michelson-Morley

No aether wind detected: 1907 Nobel Prize

 Einstein’s hypotheses:

1. The laws of nature are equally valid

in every inertial reference frame.
Including
Maxwell’s eqns

2. The speed of light in empty space is

same for all inertial observers, regard-
less of their velocity or the velocity of
the source of light.
 All observers see light flashes go
by them with the same speed

v
No matter how fast
the guy on the rocket
is moving!!
c

Both guys see the light flash

travel with velocity = c
 Even when the light flash is
traveling in an opposite direction

Both guys see the light flash

travel past with velocity = c
Gunfight viewed by observer at rest
He sees both shots
fired simultaneously

Bang
! Bang
!
Viewed by a moving observer
Viewed by a moving observer
He sees cowboy shoot
1st & cowgirl shoot later

Bang
! Bang
!
Viewed by an observer in the
opposite direction
Viewed by a moving observer
He sees cowgirl shoot
1st & cowboy shoot later

Bang
Bang !
!
Time depends of state of motion
of the observer!!

Events that occur simultaneously

according to one observer can occur
at different times for other
observers
Light clock
Seen from the ground
 Events

y (x2,t2)
(x1,t1)
x x

x1 x2 x
t
 Prior to Einstein, everyone agreed
Same events,
the distance different
between observers
events depends
upon the observer, but not the time.
y’ y’
y (x2,t2)
(x1,t1)
x x

(x1’,t1’) (x2’,t2’)
t’ t’
x1’ x1’ dist’ x2’
x’ x’

x1 x2 x
t dist
 Time is the 4th dimension

Einstein discovered that there is no

“absolute” time, it too depends upon
the state of motion of the observer

Einstein
Newton
Space-Time
completely Space
different & 2 different aspects
concepts Time of the same thing
How are the times seen
by 2 different
observers related?

We can figure this out with

simple HS-level math
( + a little effort)
Catch ball on a rocket ship
Event 2: girl catches the ball

w
v= =4m/s
t
w=4m

t=1s

Event 1: boy throws the ball

 Seen from earth
V0=3m/s
V0=3m/s
Location of the 2
events is different
5m
=
Elapsed time is 4m
)2
(
the same )2 + w=4m
(3m

The ball appears d=
v0t=3m
to travel faster

d
t=1s v= = 5m/s
t
Flash a light on a rocket ship
Event 2: light flash reaches the girl

w
c=
t0
w
t0

Event 1: boy flashes the light

 Seen from earth
V
V
Speed has to
Be the same
2
2 +w
)
Dist is longer  (vt w
d=

Time must be vt
longer
d
= (vt) +w
2 2
c=
t=? t t
 How is t related to t0?
t= time on Earth clock t0 = time on moving clock
w
c = (vt)2+w2 c =
t0
t
ct = (vt)2+w2 ct0 = w

(ct)2 = (vt)2+w2

(ct)2 = (vt)2+(ct0)2  (ct)2-(vt)2= (ct0)2  (c2-v2)t2= c2t02

c2 1
 t = 2
2
t 02  t2 = t202
c – v 2 1 – v /c
2

1
 t= t0 2  t =  t0
1 – v2/c
this is called 
 Properties of  1
1 – v2/c2
Suppose v = 0.01c (i.e. 1% of c)

1 1
 = 1 – (0.01c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.01)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (0.01)2 = =
1 – 0.0001 0.9999

 = 1.00005
 Properties of 
1 (cont’d)
1 – v2/c2
Suppose v = 0.1c (i.e. 10% of c)

1 1
 = 1 – (0.1c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.1)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (0.1)2 = =
1 – 0.01 0.99

 = 1.005
 Let’s make a chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
 1
her values of 
1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.5c (i.e. 50% of c)

1 1
 = 1 – (0.5c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.5)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (0.5)2 = =
1 – (0.25) 0.75

 = 1.15
 Enter into chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
 1
her values of 
1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.6c (i.e. 60% of c)

1 1
 =1 – (0.6c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.6)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (0.6)2 = =
1 – (0.36) 0.64

 = 1.25
 Back to the chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
 1
her values of 
1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.8c (i.e. 80% of c)

1 1
 = 1 – (0.8c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.8)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (0.8)2 = =
1 – (0.64) 0.36

 = 1.67
 Enter into the chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
 1
her values of 
1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.9c (i.e.90% of c)

1 1
 = 1 – (0.9c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.9)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (0.9)2 = =
1 – 0.81 0.19

 = 2.29
 update chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
0.9c 2.29
 1
her values of 
1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.99c (i.e.99% of c)

1 1
 =1 – (0.99c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.99)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (0.99)2 = =
1 – 0.98 0.02

 = 7.07
 Enter into chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
0.9c 2.29
0.99c 7.07
 1
her values of 
1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = c

1 1
 = 1 – (c)2/c2 =
1 – c2/c2

1 1 1
 = = =
1 – 12 0 0

 =  Infinity!!!
 update chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
0.9c 2.29
0.99c 7.07
1.00c 
 1
her values of 
1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 1.1c

1 1
 = 1 – (1.1c)2/c2 =
1 – (1.1)2c2/c2

1 1 1
 = 1 – (1.1)2 = =
1-1.21 -0.21

 =  Imaginary number!!!

 Complete the chart
v  =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
0.9c 2.29
0.99c 7.07
1.00c 
Larger than c Imaginary number
Plot results:


Never-never land
 1
1 – v2/c2

x
x
x x
v=c
Moving clocks run slower
v

t0

t= 1 t
0
1 – v2/c2

t t =  t0
>1  t > t0
 Length contraction
v

L0

time=t
L0 = vt r!
or te
Sh
man on Time = t0 =t/
rocket Length = vt0 =vt/ =L0/
Moving objects appear shorter
Length measured when
object is at rest
L = L0/
>1  L < L0

V=0.9999c
V=0.86c
V=0.1c
V=0.99c
Length contraction
mass: change in v
F=m0a = m0 time
t0
a time=t0
m0
Ft0
change in v =
m0
Ft0
m0 =
change in v

mass
Ft Ft0
m= = = m0 increases!!
change in v change in v
m = m0
t=t0
by a factor 
 Relativistic mass increase
m0 = mass of an object when it
is at rest  “rest mass”

mass of a moving 
object increases as vc, m

m = m0 as an object moves

faster, it gets
harder & harder
to accelerate
by the  factor

v=c
 summary
• Moving clocks run slow 
o f
o r
c t
• Moving objects appear shorter
f a
a
By
• Moving object’s mass increases
Plot results:


Never-never land
 1
1 – v2/c2

x
x
x x
v=c
 -centauri
Twin paradox
r s
y ea
ht
Twin brother lig
. 3
& sister 4

She will travel to

-centauri (a near-
by star on a special
He will stay home rocket ship v = 0.9c
& study Phys 100
 Light year
distance light travels in 1 year

dist = v x time = c yr

1cyr = 3x108m/s x 3.2x107 s

= 9.6 x 1015 m

We will just use cyr units

& not worry about meters
Time on the boy’s clock

cyr
.9c 4. 3
0 =
v= d0
.9c
0
v=
According to the boy
& his clock on Earth:
d0 4.3 cyr
tout = = 0.9c = 4.8 yrs
v
d0 4.3 cyr = 4.8 yrs
tback = = 0.9c
v
ttotal = tout+tback = 9.6yrs
What does the boy see on her
clock?
y r
.9c
4 . 3c
0 d=
v=
.9c
0
v=
According to the boy
her clock runs slower
tout 4.8 yrs
t =
out
= 2.3 = 2.1 yrs

tback 4.8 yr
tback =  = = 2.1 yrs
2.3
ttotal = tout+tback = 4.2yrs
So, according to the boy:

y r
.9c
4 . 3c
0 d=
v=
.9c
0
v=

his clock her clock

out: 4.8yrs 2.1yrs
back: 4.8yrs 2.1yrs ag es
h e
S ess
total: 9.6yrs 4.2yrs l
 But, according to the
girl, the boy’s clock is
moving &, so, it must be c
0.9
running slower v=

According to her, the

boy’s clock on Earth says:

tout 2.1 yrs

tout =  = = 0.9 yrs
2.3
tback 2.1 yrs = 0.9 yrs
tback = = 2.3
.9c 
=0
v ttotal = tout+tback = 1.8yrs
 Her clock advances 4.2 yrs
& she sees his clock advance
only 1.8 yrs,

t ra di ct i o n? ?
A co n
She should think he has aged
less than her!!
Events in the boy’s life:
As seen by him As seen by her

She leaves
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She arrives
& starts turn
short time ????

Finishes turn
& heads home
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She returns 9.6+ yrs 1.8 + ??? yrs

 turning around as seen by her
According to her, these
2 events occur very,very
far apart from each other

He sees her
He sees her
finish turning
start to turn

Time interval between 2 events depends

on the state of motion of the observer
Gunfight viewed by observer at rest
He sees both shots
fired simultaneously

Bang
! Bang
!
Viewed by a moving observer
Viewed by a moving observer
He sees cowboy shoot
1st & cowgirl shoot later

Bang
! Bang
!
In fact, ???? = 7.8+ years
as seen by him as seen by her
She leaves
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She arrives
& starts turn
short time 7.8+
???yrs

Finishes turn
& heads home
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She returns 9.6+ yrs 1.89.6+

+ ???yrs
yrs
No paradox: both twins agree

The twin that

“turned around”
is younger
 Ladder & Barn Door paradox
Stan & Ollie puzzle over how
to get a 2m long ladder thru
a 1m wide barn door

???
1m

2m

ladder
Ollie remembers Phys 100 & the
theory of relativity
Stan, pick up
the ladder &
run very fast
1m

2m tree

ladder
 View from Ollie’s ref. frame

Push, 1m

Stan!
2m/

V=0.9c
Ollie Stan (=2.3)
 View from Stan’s ref. frame

But it
1m/ doesn’t fit,
Ollie!!
V=0.9c
(=2.3) 2m

Ollie Stan
 If Stan pushes both ends of the
ladder simultaneously, Ollie sees the
two ends move at different times:

Too late
Too 1m
Stan!
soon n k
Stan! clu clan
k

V=0.9c
Ollie StanStan
(=2.3)
Fermilab proton accelerator

V=0.9999995c

=1000
2km
 Stanford electron accelerator
v=0.99999999995 c

3k
m
=100,000
 status
Einstein’s theory of “special relativity” has
been carefully tested in many very precise
experiments and found to be valid.

Time is truly the 4th dimension of space &

time.
 test

=29.3