Lower Plant Toxins

By:

Arslan Saeed
(Pharm. D)
What is meant by Lower Plants?
• Plants that do not differentiate into proper stem leaves and
internal vascular bundles
• They don’t have proper vascular tissues
• They have xylem phloem and epithelium but we cant
distinguish them
• They are also referred as “Non vascular plants”
 Lower plants toxins
• Plants cannot move to escape their predators, so they
must have other means of protecting themselves from
herbivorous animals. Some plants have physical
defenses such as thorns, spines and prickles, but by far
the most common protection is chemical that pose a
serious risk of illness, injury, or death to humans or
animals. Human fatalities caused by poisonous plants –
especially resulting from accidental ingestion.
Lower plants toxins

• After ingestion they reaches to GI tract

• Then they cause depolarization of mitotic spindles
• After depolarization, they cause reoccurrence of cancer cells
• Other toxicities of lower plants are:
• They cause rapid growth of cells in skin ,GI tract and bone marrow
Symptoms

• Vomiting
• Abdominal cramps
• Initial increasing WBC count
• Peripheral neuropathy
• Ulcer
• Fatal conditions and if severe so death may be occurs
PREVENTION:-

• Do not touch or eat any plant with which you are not familiar. Wash
your hands after working in the garden or walking in the woods.
Toxin Types:
• Plant Derived Compounds
• Plant Extracts
• Mycotoxins: Fungal Toxins
• Bacterial Toxins
• Algal Toxins
 Bacterial Toxins:
• Staphylococcus Aureus
• Clostridium Botulinum
 1. STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS
• DESCRIPTION :
Staphylococcus aureus is Gram-positive bacteria (stain purple by Gram
stain) that are cocci-shaped and tend to be arranged in clusters that are
described as “grape-like.” On media, these organisms can grow in up to
10% salt, and colonies are often golden or yellow (aureus means golden
or yellow).
PHARMACOGNOSTIC FEATURES :
• SYNONYMS :
Golden staph.
S. aureus
Micrococcus pyogenes
Micrococcus aureus
Staphylococci
Staphylococcus

• BOTANICAL ORIGIN :
Staphylococcus Aureus
• FAMILY :
Staphylococcaceae
• TOXINS :
Amongst the more common toxins secreted by S. aureus are hemolysin,
leukotoxin, exfoliative toxin, enterotoxin, and toxic-shock syndrome
toxin-1 (TSST-1). Aside from toxins, staphylococcal virulence factors also
include enzymes and surface proteins.

• STRUCTURE :
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram positive bacteria, which means that
the cell wall of this bacteria consists of a very thick peptidoglycan layer.
They are spherical, form clusters in 2 planes and have no flagella.
Secretions are numerous, but include surface associated adhesins,
endotoxins, exoenzymes, capsular polysaccharide.
• PATHOLOGICAL ACTIONS :
S. aureus can cause a range of illnesses, from minor skin infections,
such as pimples, impetigo, boils, cellulitis, folliculitis, carbuncles,
scalded skin syndrome, and abscesses, to life-threatening diseases such
as pneumonia, meningitis, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, toxic shock
syndrome, bacteremia, and sepsis.
• TREATMENT :
The treatment of choice for S. aureus infection is penicillin. In most
countries, S. aureus strains have developed a resistance to penicillin
due to production of an enzyme by the bacteria called penicillinase.
Antibiotics commonly prescribed to treat staph infections include
certain cephalosporins and penicillins such as cefazolin, nafcillin,
oxacillin, vancomycin, daptomycin, telavancin or linezolid.
• SIDE EFFECTS :
Side effects vary depending on the type of antibiotic used to treat the
staph infection. Side effects from topical ointments can include
stinging, itching, and redness in the affected area. Common side effects
of oral antibiotics include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

• CONTRA- INDICATIONS :
Hypersensitivity to penicillin, cephalosporins or components.
• PREVENTION :
Follow these steps to avoid a staph infection and prevent it from spreading.
 Keep your hands clean by washing them thoroughly with soap and water.
Or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.
 Keep cuts and scrapes clean and covered with bandages until they heal.
 Avoid contact with other people's wounds or bandages.
 Do not share personal items such as towels, clothing, or cosmetics.
• CONTROL METHODS :
The best control method is by maintaining good hygiene and regular and
frequent hand washing. In fact, the deadly strain of S. aureus (Methicillin
Resistant S. aureus - MRSA) that is resistant to most drugs may also be
prevented from spreading by adopting proper hand washing habits.
 2. Clostridium Botulinum
• Description:
Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic, rod-shaped spore forming
bacterium that produces a protein with characteristic neurotoxicity.
Under certain conditions, these organisms may grow in foods producing
toxin(s). Botulism, a severe form of food poisoning results when the
toxin-containing foods are ingested.
Pharmacognostic Features:
• Synonyms:
Eubacterium
G. clostridium
Botulinum
Botulinus
• Origin:
Clostridium botulinum is found in soil and untreated water throughout the
world. It produces spores that survive in improperly preserved or canned
food, where they produce a toxin. When eaten, even tiny amounts of this
toxin can lead to severe poisoning. Belong to C. botulinum species.
• Family:
Clostridiaceae
• Toxins:
Neurotoxin production is the unifying feature of the species. Eight types
of toxins have been identified that are allocated a letter (A–H), several of
which can cause disease in humans. They are resistant to degradation by
enzymes found in the gastrointestinal tract. This allows for ingested toxin to
be absorbed from the intestines into the bloodstream. However, all types
of botulinum toxin are rapidly destroyed by heating to 100 °C for 15
minutes (900 seconds). Botulinum toxin, one of the most poisonous
biological substances known, is a neurotoxin produced by the bacterium
Clostridium botulinum. C. botulinum elaborates eight antigenically
distinguishable exotoxins (A, B, C1, C2, D, E, F and G).
• Structure:
Clostridium botulinum is a gram-positive rod-shaped bacteria that
forms vegetative endospores. A typical prokaryote, Clostridium
botulinum, has no nucleus or other membrane enclosed organelles.
The bacteria reproduces through binary fission.
• Pathological Actions:

Botulinum toxin damages the autonomic nervous system by blocking

the release of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that allows muscle
contraction. When the toxin is swallowed in food, it is absorbed rapidly
and carried in the bloodstream to nerve endings in muscles. Foodborne
botulism can cause double vision, blurred vision, dropping eyelids,
nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps etc. Wound botulism can
cause difficulty swallowing or speaking, facial weakness on both sides
of the face, blurred or double vision, dropping eyelids etc.
• Treatment:
In the case of a diagnosis or suspicion of botulism, patients should be
hospitalized immediately, even if the diagnosis and/or tests are
pending. If botulism is suspected, patients should be treated
immediately with antitoxin therapy in order to reduce mortality.
Immediate intubation is also highly recommended, as respiratory
failure is the primary cause of death from botulism. In Canada, there
are currently only 3 antitoxin therapies available, which are accessible
through Health Canada Special Access Program
1) GlaxoSmithKline trivalent Types ABE,
2) NP-018 (heptavalent) Types A to G
3) BabyBIG®, Botulism Immune Globulin Intravenous
• Side Effects:
It may include:
Headache.
hives or welts.
itching skin.
rash.
redness of the skin.

• Contra-indication:
In the presence of infection at the proposed injection site. In Individual
with known hypersensitivity to any ingredient in the formulation.
• Prevention & Control:
To prevent foodborne botulism: Use approved heat processes for
commercially and home-canned foods (i.e., pressure-can low-acid foods such
as corn or green beans, meat, or poultry). Discard all swollen, gassy, or spoiled
canned foods. Double bag the cans or jars with plastic bags that are tightly
closed.
C. botulinum is an obligate anaerobe that is widely distributed in nature and is
assumed to be present on all food surfaces. Its optimum growth temperature
is within the mesophilic range. In spore form, it is the most heat resistant
pathogen that can survive in low acid foods and grow to produce toxin. The
toxin attacks the nervous system and will kill an adult at a dose of around
75 ng. This toxin is detoxified by holding food at 100 °C for 10 minutes.
• Measures to prevent botulism include reduction of the microbial contamination level,
acidification, reduction of moisture level, and whenever possible, destruction of all
botulinal spores in the food. Heat processing is the most common method of
destruction. Properly processed canned foods will not contain viable C. botulinum.
Home-canned foods are more often a source of botulism than are commercially
canned foods, which probably reflects the commercial canners' great awareness and
better control of the required heat treatment.
• Recently, rapid, alternative, in-vitro procedures have been developed for the detection
of types A, B, E, and F botulinal toxin producing organisms and their toxins. The toxins
generated in culture media can be detected using ELISA techniques such as the DIG-
ELISA and the amp-ELISA. Biologically active and non-active toxins are detected since
the assay detects the toxin antigen. The ELISA assays require one day of analysis. The
toxin genes of viable organisms can be detected using the polymerase chain reaction
technique and require one days of analysis after overnight incubation of botulinal
spores or vegetative cells. In-vitro assays that are positive are confirmed using the
mouse bioassay.
 ALGAL TOXINS:

• Microcystic Aeruginosa
• Cyanobecteria
• Gonyaulax Catenella
 1. MICROCYSTIC AERUGINOSA

• DESCRIPTION:
• M.aeruginosa is a common unicellular colonial cyanobacteria found
in fresh water environments .This bacterium produces harmful toxins
that create health risks for populations living and harvesting in
contaminated areas where M.aeruginosa blooms.
PHARMACOGNOSTIC FEATURES:

SYNONYMS:
• Cyanobacterial bloom
• Microcystis bloom
• M.aeruginosa
BOTANICAL ORIGIN:
• Microcystis aeruginosa
FAMILY:
• Microcystaceae
TOXINS:
• Microcystis aeruginosa is a species of freshwater cyanobacteria which
can form harmful algal blooms of economic and ecological
importance.They are the most common toxic cyanobacterial bloom in
eutrophic fresh water. Cyanobacteria produce neurotoxins and peptide
hepatotoxins such as microcystin and cyanopeptolin.

STRUCTURE:
• M.aeruginosa has a single circular genome consisting of 5842 795 base
pairs and has been entirely sequenced by researchers. In the genome are
6312 peotein-encoding genes ,two sets of rRNA genes, and 42 tRNA
genes representing 41 tRNA species.
PATHOLOGICAL ACTIONS:

• Ingestion of toxin-producing blue-green algae (Microcystis

aeruginosa) is a rare cause of hepatotoxicity and ALF in dogs.
Microcystin and nodularins are very potent hepatotoxins, acute doses
of these toxins cause death by liver injury and internal hemorrhages
within one to a few hours. Both microcystins and nodularins are
serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatase (1 and 2A) inhibitors
and tumor promoters.
TREATMENT:
Treatment is mainly supportive and symptom-directed.There are no
specific antidotes for cyanobacterial toxins. For ingestion of
contaminated water or seafood, stop the exposure by avoiding
contaminated seafood or water. If needed ,replenish fluids and
electrolytes.

SIDE EFFECTS:
On the more serious level inadvertent ingestion or inhalation of M.
aeruginosa may within several hours after exposure ,lead to abdominal
cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, and sore throat.
PREVENTION:

There are the following steps of M.aeruginosa;

1. Avoid water which smell bad.
2. Avoid the discoloured water.
3. Avoid the water which has foam and scum.
4. Avoid the water which contains dead fishes and animals.
CONTROL METHOD:

Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) a problematic potent cyanotoxin, is

produced by a variety of cyanobacteria. The presence of MC_LR in
drinking water is a severe threat to human health as well as environment
concern.Electron Beam Irradiation(EBI) for the control of M.
aeruginosa algae cultures and simultaneous degradation of MC-LR. The
inhibition of cell growth and degradation of MC-LR by EBI is highly
efficient during radiolysis.
 2. Cyanobacteria
• Description
Cyanobacteria are aquatic and photosynthetic ,that is , they live in the
water, and can manufacture their own food. Because they are bacteria,
they are quite small and usually unicellular , though they often grow in
colonies large enough to see. The other great contribution of the
cyanobacteria is the origin of plants.
PHARMACOGNOSTIC FEATURES:
• Synonyms
 Blue green algae
 Eubacterium
 True bacteria
 Nostoc
 Cyanophyceae
 Trichodesmium

• Origin.
• They appear to have originated in fresh water or a terrestrial environment.

• Family.
• Cyanobacteriaceae
Cyanobacterial toxins
• In term of their toxicological target, cyanabacterial toxins are
hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, cytotoxins, dermatotoxins and irritant
toxins .
• Cyanobacteria produces following these Toxins :-
• Microcystin
• Nodularin
• Cylindrospermopsin
• Anatoxin-a(s)
• Saxitoxins
Structure
• Cyanobacteria cells are larger and more elaborate than bacteria . Cell
structure is typically prokaryotic — one envelope organisation with
peptidoglycan wall, naked DNA , 70S ribosomes and absence of
membrane bound structures like endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, plastids, lysosomes, sap vacuoles.
.
Pathological Actions of Cyanobacteria.
• Recreational exposure to Cyanobacteria can result in gastrointestinal
and hey fever symptoms and pruritic skin rashes . Exposure to the
Cyanobacteria neurotoxins BMAA may be a environmental cause of
neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS) , Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.
Side effects.

• Gastrointestinal effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and mild

liver enzyme elevations. The time to onset of GI symptoms after oral
exposure is usually 3-5 hours and symptoms can last 1-2 days.
Exposure can cause conjunctivitis, rhinitis, earache, sore throat and
swollen lips.
Prevention of Cyanobacteria

• To help reduce Cyanobacteria from forming: Use only the

recommended amount of fertilizers on your yard and gardens to
reduce the amount that runs off into the environment . Properly
maintain your household septic system.Maintain a buffer of natural
vegetation around ponds and lakes to filter incoming water.
Control methods

• An ultrasonic device is used to control HABs by emitting ultrasonic

waves of a particular frequency such that the cellular structure of
Cyanobacteria is destroyed by rupturing internal Gas vesicles used for
buoyancy control. Successfully implemented in ponds and other small
water bodies.
 3. GAUNYAULAX
CATENELLA
• DESCRIPTION:
Gonyaulax, genus of dinoflagellate algae (family Gonyaulacaceae) that
inhabit marine, fresh, or brackish water. Several planktonic species are
toxic and are sometimes abundant enough to colour water and cause
the phenomenon called red tide, which may kill fish and other animals.
Humans may be poisoned by eating mussels or other shellfish that have
ingested large quantities of Gonyaulax catenella.
PHARMACOGNOSTIC FEATURES:
• SYNONYMS:
Gonyaulax acatenella
Protogonyaulax acatenella
Gonyaulax catenella
Protogonyaulax catenella

• ORIGIN:
• This organisms has been found all along the pacific coast of North America and in particular
along the coast of California where blooms of the organisms sometimes produced red tides.

• FAMILY:
Gonyaulacaceae
• STRUCTURE:
Alexandrium catenella can occur in single cells (similar to A. fundyense),
but more often they are seen in short chains of 2, 4, or 8 cells. The
organism is typically 20–25 µm in length and 25–32 µm in width. The
cells are compressed both in the anterior and posterior ends of this
specimen. Alexandrium has two flagella that enable it to swim. While
one flagellum encircles the cell causing the cell the rotate and move
forward, the other extends behind the cell and controls the direction. In
some instances, these organisms can appear like small trains moving in
the water under a microscope.
• TOXINS:
Saxitoxin (STX)
neosaxitoxin (Neo-STX) 
Gonyautoxin 2 (GTX2)
PATHOLOGICAL ACTIONS:
• The dinoflagellate produces SAXITOXIN, which is a highly
potent NEUROTOXIN. If consumed, this toxin can cause PARALYTIC
SHELL FISH POISONING (PSP). By ingesting saxitoxin, humans can
suffer from numbness, ATAXIA, incoherence, and in extreme cases
respiratory paralysis and death. 
• TREATMENT:
.Treatment for shellfish poisoning is supportive (i.e., fluid replacement
and respiratory support if necessary). In PSP, emesis may not occur,
hence gastric lavage is commonly used.
• PREVENTIONS AND CONTROL:
The most effective way to prevent adverse health effects to humans
from the red tides is to prevent exposure to the toxins and organisms.
For the aerosolized red tide respiratory irritation, water and air
monitoring could detect high levels in the air, and warning notices can
be posted along affected coastal areas for susceptible subpopulations.
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