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20ME901 – AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Department: Mechanical Engineering

Batch/Year: Mechanical/III
Created by: Dr. R.Suresh Kumar
Date:25.07.2022
 Table of Contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Course Objectives 06

2 Pre Requisites 07

3 Syllabus 08

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Lecture Plan 12

7 Activity based learning 13

8 Lecture Notes 16

9 Assignments 68

10 Part A Q & A 71

11 Part B Qs 76

12 Supportive online Certification courses 78

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 79

14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 82

15 Assessment Schedule 84

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 85

17 Mini Project suggestions 86

 Course Objectives

Explain the vehicle construction, aerodynamics and working

principle of various parts of an IC Engine.

Describe an Electronic Engine Management system.

Explain the working principle of various parts of Transmission

systems.

Discuss the construction and working principle of steering, brakes

and suspension systems.

Distinguish the construction and working principle of Hybrid

vehicle, E-vehicle and Autonomous vehicle.
 Pre Requisites

MODE OF DELIVERY: ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS:

MD 1. Oral presentation AC 1. Unit Test
MD 2. Tutorial AC 2. Assignment
MD 3.Course Seminar AC 3. Internal Assessment Exam
AC 4.Model Examination
20ME901 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING LTPC 3003
OBJECTIVES:
Explain the vehicle construction, aerodynamics and working principle of various parts of
an IC Engine.
Describe an Electronic Engine Management system.
Explain the working principle of various parts of Transmission systems.
Discuss the construction and working principle of steering, brakes and suspension
systems.
Distinguish the construction and working principle of Hybrid vehicle, E-vehicle and
Autonomous vehicle.

UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES 9

Types of automobiles vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and

body, Vehicle aerodynamics (various resistances and moments involved), IC engines

–components-functions and materials, variable valve timing (VVT).

UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 9

Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically

controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type and

common rail direct injection system), Electronic ignition system (Transistorized coil

ignition system, capacitive discharge ignition system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT),

Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system, Emission norms

(BS -VI). AUTOTRONICS: An overview of basic electrical components and circuits

in an automobile - overview of vehicle electronic systems.

UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 9

Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift

mechanisms, Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propeller

shaft, slip joints, universal joints, Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and

Torque Tube Drive.

UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS 9

Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front

Axle, Types of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems,

Antilock Braking System (ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction

Control.
UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES & ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE

ENGINEERING 9

Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and

Hydrogen in Automobiles- Engine modifications required –Performance, Combustion

and Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels - Electric

and Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel Cell. Introduction about Connected Vehicles – The Future

of Transportation, Future of Autonomous Vehicles - ADAS – Safe and efficient drive,

IoT Enhanced Mobility.

Note: Practical Training in dismantling and assembling of Engine parts and Transmission
Systems should be given to the students.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:

Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to

CO1 Recognize the various parts of the automobile and their functions and

materials.

CO2 Discuss the engine auxiliary systems and engine emission control.

CO3 Distinguish the working of different types of transmission systems.

CO4 Explain the Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems.

CO5 Predict possible alternate sources of energy for IC Engines.

CO6 Explain the upcoming technology related to E – Vehicle and Autonomous

vehicle.

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Jain K.K. and Asthana .R.B, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill Publishers,
New Delhi, 2002.

2. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering”, Vol 1 & 2, Seventh Edition, Standard

Publishers, New Delhi, 13th Edition 2014.

3. Rajput R.K., A Text book of Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Laxmi Publication,
New Delhi, 2014.
REFERENCES:
1.Ganesan V. “Internal Combustion Engines”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.
2.Heinz Heisler, “Advanced Engine Technology,” SAE International Publications USA,
1998.
3.Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics,” Second Edition, East-West Press, 1999.
4.Martin W, Stockel and Martin T Stockle , “Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals,”
The Good heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978.
5. Newton ,Steeds and Garet, “Motor Vehicles”, Butterworth Publishers,1989.
6.nptel.ac.in/courses/125106002/
7.nptel.ac.in/courses/108103009/module2/lec4/1.html
8. nptel.ac.in/courses/112104033/39
9. nptel.ac.in/courses/112104033/pdf_lecture/lecture40.pdf

Course outcomes
After successful completion of the course, the students should
be able to

Highest
CO No. Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level

Recognize the various parts of the automobile and their

C303.1 K2
functions and materials.
Discuss the engine auxiliary systems and engine
C303.2 K2
emission control.
Distinguish the working of different types of
C303.3 K2
transmission systems.

C303.4 Explain the Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems. K2

Predict possible alternate sources of energy for IC

C303.5 K2
Engines.
Explain the upcoming technology related to E – Vehicle
C303.6 K2
and Autonomous vehicle.
 CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Program Specific
Program Outcomes Outcomes

Cours K3,
K3 K4 K4 K5 A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K4 K4 K4
e Out Level K5, K6
Come of CO

s
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3

K2                  
C303. 2 2 2
1 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
2 1   1
K2 2       2         2    
C303.
3 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
4     1
K2 2 1               2    
C303.
5 1   1
K3 2 1 1             2    
C303.
6 1   1
           
C303   2 1 1 2 2 2
1   1
 CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Program Specific
Program Outcomes Outcomes

Cours K3,
K3 K4 K4 K5 A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K4 K4 K4
e Out Level K5, K6
Come of CO

s
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3

K2                  
C303. 2 2 2
1 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
2 1   1
K2 2       2         2    
C303.
3 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
4     1
K2 2 1               2    
C303.
5 1   1
K3 2 1 1             2    
C303.
6 1   1
           
C303   2 1 1 2 2 2
1   1
 5.1 LecturePlan
.
UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
S.N Topic No. of Propos Actual pertai Taxon Mode
o Perio ed Lecture ning omy of
ds date Date CO level Deliver
y
1 Use of Natural Gas 1 CO5 K2 MD1

2 Liquefied Petroleum 1 CO5 K2 MD1

Gas
3 Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol 1 CO5 K2 MD1

4 Gasohol and 1 CO5 K2 MD1

Hydrogen in
Automobiles
5 Engine modifications 1 CO5 K2 MD1
required
6 Performance, 1 CO5 K2 MD1
Combustion

and Emission
Characteristics of SI
with these alternate
fuels

7 Performance, 1 CO5 K2 MD1

Combustion

and Emission
Characteristics of CI
engines with these
alternate fuels
8 Electric 1 CO5 K2 MD1

and Hybrid Vehicles

9 Fuel Cell 1 CO5 K2 MD1
5.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

CROSSWORD PUZZLE
HINTS:
Across

4. Natural gas is made up almost entirely of what chemical compound?

7. A fuel cell is used to convert chemical energy into ____________Energy

8. The residual product discharged by the hydrogen oxygen cell is

____________

9. Which is the most preferred S.I. engines fuel?

10. The LPG is a by-product of the fractional distillation of which fuel?

Down

1. ______________ and suitable catalyst are required to promote high rate of

electrode processes.

2. Which alcohol is used in racing car engine due to its high anti-knock rating?

3. The electric motor in a hybrid car can also act as :

5. Due to which alcohol corrosion of rubber and aluminum parts occur?

6. The wheels are driven by both the engine and the motor in which hybrid
vehicle?
CROSSWORD SOLUTION
5.3. LECTURE NOTES

UNIT -V

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES
 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Introduction: 

Environmental awareness, stimulated fuel diversification and the high price of conventional fuels
have led to the creation of incentives to promote and further evaluate alternative fuel sources for
conventional internal combustion engines.
1. Natural Gas:

Natural gas comes from the decay of ancient organisms, but it naturally takes a gaseous form
instead of a liquid form. Natural gas commonly occurs in association with crude oil. It is derived from both
land plants and aquatic organic matter and forms above or below oil deposits. It is often dissolved in crude
oil at the high pressures existing in a reservoir. There are also reservoirs of natural gas, known as non-
associated gas, that contain only gas and no oil. Most natural gas comes from three types of wells: natural
gas-and-condensate wells, oil wells, and coal bed methane wells.

Natural gas is composed primarily of methane, the smallest and simplest hydrocarbon. When
used as a transportation vehicle fuel, natural gas must be either compressed (CNG) or liquefied (LNG) to
decrease its storage volume
NG Vehicles:

Natural Gas Vehicles (NGV) are typically bi-fuelled cars with a spark-ignition petrol engine.
However, natural gas is also used in compression-ignition (i.e. diesel-type) engines for heavy-duty vehicles.
Diverse engine technologies running on natural gas include: a) stoichiometric combustion, b) lean Burn; c)
single Point Injection; and d) multi Point Injection. CNG is the most common option for cars. The gas is
stored in pressurized 200-270 bar cylinders, which are located within the boot space. Cars used to have a
single steel cylinder; new cars contain several smaller composite cylinders. Being pressurized, it is heavier
than conventional fuel tanks and increases the car total weight by around 60 kg. As of 2008 there were
more than 7 million NGVs running on the world’s roads.
 In the past, the weight of CNG cylinders has often limited NG application to
heavy vehicles (trucks). This is now less relevant as natural gas engines are becoming
lighter compared with their diesel counterparts and lightweight composite materials
CNG cylinders are available. In some applications, fleet operators may choose a dual
fuel natural gas engine over a dedicated natural gas engine, with the option of
switching to diesel if natural gas supply becomes restricted. The energy efficiency of
engines running on natural gas is almost equal to that of gasoline engines in new cars,
where dedicated injectors are used for the alternative fuel but are lower compared
with modern diesel engines. Gasoline vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer
because of the engine low compression ratio, resulting in a cropping (10-15%) of
delivered power while running on natural gas. In recent ‘native’ bi-fuel gasoline-NG
vehicles, the efficiency loss is reduced to 5-10%. CNG dedicated engines use a higher
compression ratio due to the fuel's higher octane number of 120–130.
Compared to petrol, cars running on natural gas offer a CO emissions reduction
of 90% to 97%, 25% reduced CO2, 35% to 60% reduced NOx emissions, and 50% to
75% reduced non-methane hydrocarbon emissions. In addition to this, there are
fewer toxic and carcinogenic pollutants, little or no particulate matter and no
evaporative emissions. Transit buses equipped with CNG engines models produce
49% lower NOx emissions and 84% lower particulate matter emissions versus transit
buses equipped with diesel engines of the same period.
1. Cylinder:
Methane stored at high pressure up to 3,000psi.
 2. High Pressure Pipe:
Sends methane from cylinder to regulator.
 3. Pressure regulator:
Pumps cylinder gas to engine via intake manifold.
 4. Low Pressure Hose:
Sends low pressure gas from regulator to mixer.
 5. Mixer:
Mixes air and gas before they go into the combustion chamber.
 6. Anti-contaminant Electronic System (AES):
The controller that processes data from various parts and regulates stepper motor
actions.
 7. Stepper Motor:
Controls how much gas enters the engine.
 8. Oxygen Sensor Emulator:
Detects oxygen level and relays data to AES for processing.
 9. Injector Emulator:
Stops the fuel injectors from squirting petrol by tricking the ECU and onboard
diagnostics when the engine is using gas.
 10. Digital Advance Corrector (or Timing Advance Processor):
Controls engine timing when using gas.
 11. Changeover switch:
In a bi-fuel engine, it allows driver to switch between using petrol or gas.
 12. Refueling valve: For filling up gas.

Advantages:
•  Produced at relatively low cost and is cleaner burning than gasoline or diesel fuel.
• They reduce environmentally harmful emissions. Natural-gas vehicles can achieve
up to a 93 percent reduction in carbon monoxide emissions, 33 percent reduction
in emissions of various oxides of nitrogen and a 50 percent reduction in reactive
hydrocarbons when compared to gasoline vehicles.
• Natural gas costs are lower than gasoline. On average, natural gas costs one-third
less than gasoline at the pump.
• Natural gas is convenient and abundant.
 •Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) have lower maintenance costs. Because
natural gas burns so cleanly, it results in less wear and tear on the engine and
extends the time between tune-ups and oil changes.
•Octane number is around 110, which makes it a very good SI engine fuel.
Because of this high octane number the flame speed is higher and engines can
operate with a high compression ratio.
•calorific value is higher than petrol and diesel
•can be used for higher compression ratio (13:1)
•SFC is very low
•no smoke
Disadvantages:
•low energy density resulting in low engine performance
•low engine volumetric efficiency because it is a gaseous fuel
•Need for large pressurized fuel storage tank. There is some safety concern
with a pressurized fuel tank.
•inconsistent fuel properties
•refueling is a slow process
•Note: carbon dioxide is the primary contributor to global warming.
2. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):
LPG is a generic term for fuels that include butane, propane and small
amounts of other hydrocarbons. The common characteristic among these fuels is
that they are easily liquefied by the application of modest pressures (less than
300 psi).
Propane and butane are obtained from oil and gas wells. Propane is a type
of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) made from crude oil. When pressure is applied to
a container of propane, the gas becomes a liquid. When the pressure is released,
the liquid propane turns into a gas.
For automobile engines, two types of LPG are used. One is propane and
the other is butane. Sometimes, a mixture of propane and butane is used as liquid
petroleum gas in automobile engines.
LPG Vehicles:

LPG Vehicles work much like gasoline-powered vehicles with spark-ignited engines. LPG
is stored as a liquid in a separate steel or composite vessel at the pressure of 10 bar,
although it can stand a pressure of 1 unlike flexible-fuel vehicles ("dual-fuel"), that
store the two different fuels mixed together in the same tank, and the resulting blend is
burned in the unique combustion chamber LPG supply to the engine is controlled by a
regulator or vaporizer, which converts the LPG to a vapour. LPG injection engines,
developed over the past 15 years, do not vaporize the LPG. Instead, the LPG is injected
into the combustion chamber in liquid form. These systems have proven to be reliable
in terms of power, engine durability, and cold starting. In the 1970s Toyota made a
number of LPG-only engines for cars. Today, most LPG vehicles are conversions from
petrol vehicles.

The LPG energy content (High Heating Value, HHV) is 46.23 MJ/kg. The high octane
rating and the low carbon and oil contamination characteristics of LPG result in a
documented longer engine lifetime, up to twice that of the gasoline engines. Because
the fuel mixture is fully gaseous, cold start problems associated with liquid fuel are
eliminated. LPG has relatively high energy content per unit of mass, but its energy
content per unit volume is low. Thus, LPG tanks have more space and weight than
petrol or diesel fuel tanks, but the range of LPG vehicles is equivalent to that of petrol
vehicles. Bi-fuel LPG car tests show around a 15% reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions (per unit of distance) compared to petrol operation. The best quality LPG bi-
fuel engines produce fewer NOx emissions and virtually zero particulate emissions if
compared to petrol.

Modifications required (Conversion):

 The process of converting a car to run on propane is fairly demanding and requires a
good knowledge of automotive systems in general to accomplish. Several companies
offer kits that include all the needed parts to perform the conversion. Those without
the necessary know-how should try to find a local mechanic with experience in LP-gas
conversions to get the job done. Although propane is very safe as an automotive fuel, if
the system is not installed correctly, there can be safety problems.
 The first step is choosing a tank. Most conversions are dual-fuel conversions,
meaning you won't be replacing your old fuel system, you'll simply be adding a
second. As a result, the propane tank will take up some of the storage space in your
car, usually in the trunk. They are smaller tanks, and you'll have to sacrifice your
spare tire. In larger vehicles, you could mount multiple tanks for increased capacity.
Once the tank is bolted in, a fill point must be drilled into the car's body, usually
near the gasoline fill point or at the back of the trunk. The ideal location is one that
requires minimal piping to connect to the tank. The fuel lines themselves are copper
tubes, which offer a certain amount of flexibility when the lines are routed. The
tank must be connected to the fill point, and lines also have to run along the
underside of the car up to the engine.
A solenoid valve (LPG valve in the above diagram) must be installed on the
fuel line in between the tank and the engine. This valve cuts the flow of LP gas
when the car is running on gasoline and when the engine is shut off. It also has a
filter built in that removes any dirt that may be in the fuel. The next major
component is called a regulator, also referred to as a vaporizer. This device
performs one of the functions that a carburetor handles in a gasoline engine it uses
heat from the car's cooling fluids to vaporize the propane into gas form. Another
safety check occurs at the regulator, as well. It includes an electronic circuit that
cuts the flow of gas if the engine stops or stalls. The regulator is usually smaller
than a regular carburetor, so finding space for it in the engine compartment
shouldn't be a problem.
 The other part of a carburetor's function is handled by a mixer mounted in the
intake manifold. The mixer takes information from the car's sensors or ECU, and then
it controls the amount of gas that flows into the cylinders.
The system must then be wired into the car's electrical system, allowing for a
functioning fuel gauge, as well as proper automatic switching between propane and
gasoline (along with a dashboard-mounted manual switch). There must be
connections to the car's ECU so that the engine controller can adjust for different fuel
settings.

Cars with an electronic injection system will probably need an electronic

emulator. When the car is operating on LP gas, the fuel injectors will not be sending
any information to the other sensors in the car -- this will light up the "check engine"
light and give incorrect diagnostic readings. The emulator fakes the proper signals so
the ECU can operate properly.

Conversion kits come with more detailed instructions, but this is a basic
overview of what needs to happen in a dual-fuel conversion.

 Advantages:

• Has an octane rating of well over 100. This allows the engine compression
ratio to be raised for greater power and efficiency.

•Propane burns cleanly. Less engine wear occurs. Therefore, less maintenance
is required.

•No fuel pump and little emission control equipment is used.

•LPG mixes with air at all temperatures.

•Has a high anti-knock characteristic.

•LPG costs are lower than gasoline. On average, natural gas costs 50% less
than gasoline.

•Engine may have a 50% longer life.

•calorific value is higher than petrol and diesel

Disadvantages:

A special fuel system is needed to handle the pressurized liquid and gas. The system
includes special fuel tanks to hold reserve supplies of propane under pressure. The
converter-regulator allows the liquid propane to become a vapour. A special
carburetor controls the flow of the propane vapour into the engine.

Basic System Layout:

 LPG systems provide a complete secondary fuel system for the vehicle. They are
generally designed to run with petrol engines. The type of system used should
match the type of vehicle.

Basic System Types:

 1. Venturi:
 
These systems are sometime known as 1st generation. They are highly inaccurate
and work by mixing Auto gas with air using a simple venturi or 'cooker' ring. There
are no electronic controls and therefore no lambda control. Green fuel does not
supply these simple systems as they are suitable only for vehicles with carburetor
engines.

 2. Single or Multipoint Microprocessor:

 These are fully microprocessor controlled systems suitable for modern single or
petrol multi-point injection systems. They work by having a second LPG ECU which
operates the LPG injectors from signals given by the existing petrol ECU. They are
suitable for vehicles with 3 way catalytic converters but do not perfectly emulate the
petrol injection system. Some emissions reduction can be achieved.

 3. Multipoint Sequential Microprocessor:

Key
1 Microprocessor 7 TPS sensor
2 Fuel switch 8 Injector LPG
3 Fuel switch 9 Lambda sensor
4 MAP sensor 10 RPM sensor
5 Vaporizer 11 LPG tank
6 Shutoff valve LPG
These are the latest systems on the market and are ideal for both emissions
reduction and fuel efficiency. This new generation of Sequential Gas Injection (SGi)
systems works by 'reading' the data sent to each petrol injector and using this
information to control the LPG injectors. Effectively the petrol engine management
system is controlling the LPG via a computer interface that translates the raw data to
compensate for the different characteristics between LPG and Petrol. Each system
needs to be tailored to the vehicle by the installer.

 3. BIODIESEL:

 The esterified versions of vegetable oils have been given the generic label of
“biodiesel”. Initially it was believed that vegetable oils could be used directly with
minimal processing and preparation. However, extensive engine testing proved that
while diesel engines operated satisfactorily on raw vegetable oils, combustion
residues and deposits would quickly cause problems with fuel injectors, piston rings
and oil stability. By reacting the oils with methanol or ethanol, esters (biodiesel) are
formed which have much improved characteristics as fuels. The most popular types
of crops from which biodiesel can be extracted include soybeans, sunflowers,
jetropha, peanuts, rapeseed, etc.

Biodiesel is made from renewable feedstocks through simple refining processes such
as transesterification with low molecular weight alcohols, dilution with low viscosity
miscible solvents, micro emulsification, and pyrolysis. These techniques decrease the
viscosity of fuels containing vegetable oil. It can be concluded that out of the four
methods, transesterification method is simple and cost effective.
Advantages:
1. Biodiesel runs in any conventional, unmodified diesel engine.
2.Biodiesel can be used alone or mixed in any amount with petroleum diesel fuel.

3.Biodiesel is more lubricating than diesel fuel, so it increases the life of engines.
4.Biodiesel is biodegradable and non-toxic.
5.Biodiesel has a high flash point, or ignition temperature, of about 300F compared
to petroleum diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125F. This means it’s safer to
transport.
7.Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel, thus implying that their oxygen content plays a role
in making fatty compounds suitable as diesel fuel by “cleaner” burning.
8.Esters have lower viscosities than the parent oils. Accordingly, they improve the
injection process and ensure better atomization of the fuel in the combustion
chamber.
9.Cetane number of esters is greater than those of both vegetable oil and No. 2
diesel fuel.
 Disadvantages:
1. Slight increase in NO x emissions (up to 10% depending upon blend).
2.Slight decrease in fuel economy on energy basis (about 10% for pure biodiesel).

3.Thickens more than diesel fuel in cold weather, may need to use blends in sub
freezing conditions.
 4. BIO-ETHANOL:

 Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) can be made from ethylene or from fermentation of grains
and sugar. Much of it made from corn, sugar beets, sugar cane and even cellulose
(wood and paper). Pure ethanol is a clear liquid with a characteristic though faint
odor. Ethanol is a single compound and much lighter than the typical hydrocarbons
that make up gasoline. The specific gravity of ethanol is higher than gasoline. A litre
of ethanol weighs 20-80 g more per litre than typical gasoline. Ethanol’s viscosity is
higher than gasoline but is still less than diesel fuel. No problems are known for
handling of ethanol in cold weather due to high viscosity.
Ethanol boosted engine:

Ford's Ethanol Boost Engine named Bobcat. Bobcat engines will feature ethanol boost
technology, developed by Ethanol Boosting Systems, LLC of Cambridge, Mass., that
promises 5 to 10 percent greater fuel economy than EcoBoost engines. Ethanol
boosting starts with a small turbocharged engine with separate gasoline and ethanol
fuel injectors for each cylinder. The gasoline system mixes fuel and air in the motor's
intake manifold using port injection. The second system injects small amounts of
ethanol directly into the combustion chamber to control premature detonation, or
knock that result from the high temperature and pressure of a turbocharged engine.
The ethanol prevents knock by cooling the air/fuel mixture until the engine is ready
for combustion.
According to EBS, so little ethanol is used in the knock suppression process that the
ethanol tank would only need to be refilled every few months or so.

While an ethanol-boosted engine's small displacement saves fuel, operating at higher

compression ratios is said to enable higher power. A 5.0-liter turbo V-8 with ethanol
boost could be rated at 500 horsepower and 700 pounds-feet of torque.
 Advantages:
• used as fuel in dual fuel engine
•low NOx (combustion temperature is low)
•oxygenated fuel – complete combustion
•no engine modifications required
•less HC & CO
Disadvantages:
• aldehyde emissions
•cold starting problem
•less availability
•low calorific value (approximately 50% of petrol or diesel)

•Corrosion problem in long run (alcohol available in the market is not pure, i.e. 90-
95% alcohol + 5-10% water (this water content brings down the combustion
temperature).
5. GOSOHOL:
Gasohol is gasoline (petrol) to which a small amount of alcohol has been added.
Usually the alcohol is about 10 percent of the fuel. The alcohol can be made from
corn or other agricultural products. Advocates of gasohol say that it reduces our
dependence on foreign sources of oil.
Gasohol can be used in engines without any changes in the fuel system. However,
when fuel with a larger percentage of alcohol is used, the carburetor or fuel injection
system must be recalibrated.
 Note: 30 % of India total foreign exchange earnings is utilized on oil imports.
 6. HYDROGEN:
 Hydrogen has many characteristics that makes it the ultimate alternative fuel to
fossil energy fuels. Hydrogen can be combusted directly in internal-combustion
engines or it can be used in fuel cells to produce electricity with high efficiency.
Hydrogen is now produced primarily from the steam reformation of natural gas,
though it can be produced from almost any source containing hydrogen in its
composition. Hydrogen can also be produced from the electrolysis of water.
 Advantages:
• Clean fuel – carbon is not present – less pollution (almost zero emission).
•Calorific value is better than petrol (on mass basis) – 2 to 4 times.
•Light weight
•Fuel leakage to environment is not a pollutant.
Disadvantages:
• Technically not possible to use
•Process is costlier
•Production, storing & handling are difficult
7. ELECTRIC VEHICLE (EV):

The conventional internal combustion electric vehicle (ICEV) employs a combustion

engine for propulsion. Its energy source is liquid petrol or diesel. In contrast, the
electric vehicle (EV) employs an electric motor and the corresponding energy
sources are batteries, fuel cells, capacitors and/or flywheels. Notice that the
presently achievable specific energy of capacitors and flywheels precludes them from
being the sole energy sources for EVs. The key difference between the ICEV and EV
is the device for propulsion. An electric vehicle consists of a battery that provides
energy, an electric motor that drives the wheels, and a controller that regulates the
energy flow to the motor.
An electric vehicle consists of a battery that provides energy, an electric motor that
drives the wheels, and a controller that regulates the energy flow to the motor.

 EV configurations:

Previously, the EV was mainly converted from the ICEV, simply replacing the
combustion engine by the electric motor while retaining all the other components.
This converted EV has been fading out because of the drawback of heavy weight,
loss of flexibility and degradation of performance. At present, the modern EV is
purposely built. This purpose-built EV is based on original body and frame designs to
satisfy the structural requirements unique to EVs and to make use of the greater
flexibility of electric propulsion.

Compared with the ICVE, the configuration of the EV is particularly flexible. This
flexibility is due to several factors unique to the EV. Firstly, the energy flow in the EV
is mainly via flexible electrical wires rather than bolted flanges or rigid shafts. Thus,
the concept of distributed subsystems in the EV is really achievable. Secondly,
different EV propulsion arrangements (such as independent four-wheel and in-wheel
drives) involve a significant difference in the system configuration. To a lesser
degree, different EV propulsion devices (such as DC and induction motor drives) also
have different weights, sizes and shapes. Thirdly, different EV energy sources (such
as batteries and fuel cells) have different weights, sizes and shapes.

Figure shows the general configuration of the EV, consisting of three major
subsystems-electric propulsion, energy source and auxiliary. The electric propulsion
subsystem comprises the electronic controller, power converter, electric motor,
mechanical transmission and driving wheels.
Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic
controller For many years it was felt that the electrically propelled car had great
potential, but to date, various attempts to offer this type of vehicle have not generated
sufficient sales to justify widespread development of this smooth, quite system.

Before the electric power unit becomes a serious contender to the conventional engine,
a revolutionary new design of battery must be developed. It must be light in weight,
low in cost and have a large energy storage capacity for its volume. Until the time
when this battery is invented, the conventional lead-acid battery must be relied on to
supply the propulsion energy.

Automobile manufacturers have identified three types of rechargeable battery as

suitable for electric car use. Those types are lead-acid batteries, nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries, and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries and the space occupied by these
heavy batteries is large. Operational problems include the limited range of the vehicle
and its comparatively low maximum speed.

Electric vehicle essentially consists of electric motor, rechargeable battery and its
charger and a means of controlling energy flow from power source (battery) to motor,
in accordance with the requirements of the vehicle. There are no gearbox and clutch in
these vehicles.
Advantages:
1. The running cost is 40 paise per kilometer
2.zero emission vehicle
3.while running, it does not produce noise and vibrations
4.As there are no gears and clutch in these vehicles, they are extremely reliable, safe
and easy to drive and manoeuvre in the congested cities
5.Easier to service and maintenance
6.They are ideal for stop-start conditions.
 Disadvantages:
1. The vehicle range is limited on one charge. The vehicle can run 80 km on a single
charge
2.the top speed is limited
3.it is heavy and bulky
8. HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES (HEV):

 A hybrid is a vehicle that has two or more power sources to propel it. An example
that is often seen is a moped; the petrol engine is one power source and the rider
provides the second power source by ‘pedal power’. Other vehicles that are classed
as hybrid include some trains (diesel and electric) and submarines (nuclear and
electric). Although very quite in operation and producing almost zero emissions, the
disadvantages of the electric vehicle is often the heavy weight of batteries required
to propel it, and also the very short distance which can be covered before it is
necessary to recharge the batteries.

Petrol engine cars are both lightweight and can cover extensive distances before
they need to refill the fuel tank. Refilling the fuel tank is very rapid compared with
the time taken to recharge batteries. The disadvantages of the petrol engine are
high emissions and high fuel consumption when compared to electric power.

A hybrid car combines the low emissions and fuel consumption of an electric vehicle
and provides a lightweight vehicle that can travel a long distance. The hybrid vehicle
effectively makes use of one or both of the power sources to propel the vehicle.
Depending on how the hybrid system is designed, the petrol engine simply function
as a means of driving a generator. The generator then charges the batteries that
power the electric motors, which provide power to the vehicle transmission.
Alternative designs allow the petrol engine and/or the electric motors to be selected
to provide power to the vehicle transmission system.Research has shown that the
average driver of a vehicle uses the maximum power of an engine less than 1% of
the overall driving time. Therefore, the size of the petrol engine used in the current
range of hybrid cars provides sufficient power to be acceptable to most drivers.

To propel an automotive vehicle, the power source has to initially overcome the
friction between the road and tyres, together with the resistance of the vehicle
passing through the air. The power source also has to provide power for the
accessories that aid the driver, such as lighting, power steering, even air-
conditioning.
The power consumed to overcome these energy requirements is very small in
relation to the maximum power that the average size engine is capable of producing.
The remaining engine power is used to provide acceleration-the available power
dictates the rate of acceleration.

The petrol engines used in a hybrid car are lightweight and very fuel efficient; they
typically produce approximately 70 brake horsepower which is supplemented with a
electric motor rated typically at approximately 50 horse power.
 A typical hybrid car contains the following components, as shown in figure.

etrol engine:

 The engine is similar to those fitted to conventional vehicles e.g. four cylinders,
four-stroke normally aspirated, etc. however, the capacity of the engine used is
usually relatively small.

Electric motor:

 The electric motor is used to propel the car, however with the use of electronic
technology, the motor can also function as a generator to recharge the batteries.

 Transmission:

 The transmission can be either manual or automatic.

 Fuel tank:

 The fuel tank is used to store petrol for the petrol engine.

Batteries:

 The batteries provide the energy source for the electric motor, either recharged by
an external power source or recharged by the generator or electric motor when it is
functioning as a generator. The two power sources are combined in one of two
forms, either in parallel or in series.
The parallel hybrid connects the petrol engine and the electric motor to the gearbox, so
both power sources can apply their energy to the gearbox independently or
simultaneously.

The series hybrid utilizes the power of the petrol engine and electric motor in a
different manner, the power of the petrol engine is applied to a generator, which is then
used to either charge the batteries or to directly power an electric motor. The electric
motor then applies power to the gearbox. Note that on series applications, the petrol
engine is never used to directly supply power to the gearbox. The power sources are
connected in series, hence the name series hybrid.

The hybrid car offers high efficiency yet it also has high performance. It
utilizes the power of the electric motor to supplement the energy provided by the petrol
engine during situations such as accelerating from a standstill or driving up hills.

While a conventional vehicle is braking, the kinetic energy in the moving

vehicle is absorbed or removed by the braking system in the form of the heat generated
during braking. However, with a hybrid car, during deceleration the electric motor
becomes a generator (electronic control enables the components of the motor to
function as a generator). The motor/generator is used during the deceleration period to
recharge the batteries. If the hybrid car reduces speed over longer periods, rather than
during rapid stops, more of the kinetic energy can be used to recharge the batteries. The
use of the electric motor to recharge the batteries also assists with the braking effect of
the car, thus reducing wear on the brake components.

The hybrid car can reduce the waste of energy and the production of
emissions in many driving situations, e.g. the petrol engine is switched off while the car
is stationary. The car generally operates on battery power alone, but when additional
power is required for accelerating or if the batteries require charging, the petrol engine
starts and supplements the battery power. Battery power alone can accelerate the car to
around 42 kilometers per hour. Additionally, a separate starter motor is no longer
required to start the petrol engine because the hybrid car uses the electric motor to start
the engine when the vehicle is moving.
The initial cost of a hybrid car is normally higher than that of a conventional petrol
engine car; however the emission levels and fuel consumption are lower than petrol
engine vehicles. Due to the high efficiency and low emissions, some governments
and local authorities encourage the use of hybrid cars with special tax reductions
and waiving of levies and tolls.

Hybrid electric vehicle uses electric motor as a main power source while
auxiliary power source (generally IC engine) is also equipped. There are two types of
HEVs; so called series and parallel configurations. The first type is the series.
Typically, the gasoline engine is used to start and stop the car. Once the hybrid car
has attained a certain speed, the electric engine will take over. The gasoline engine
is also used to charge the electric engine's batteries. As you can see, both engines
are used in tandem with each other but never together.

The second type is called the parallels. It has the same physical configuration of the
series hybrid however the operation is quite different. Both the electric engine and
the gasoline engine can be used to start and stop the car. The electric engine is used
to boost the power of the car when required. Parallel hybrid cars are more suited for
long distance travelling.

Series Hybrid
 Parallel Hybrid

Advantages:
1. low exhaust emission levels
2.the operating range of the hybrid vehicle is comparable with that of conventional
vehicles

 Disadvantages:
1. hybrid vehicles are bulky and heavy
2.they require very complicated control systems the cost is very high
3.the cost is very high

 A hybrid vehicle has three major systems.

 1. A primary power source, either an IC engine driven generator where the IC engine
only operates in the most efficient part of its performance map, or alternatives such as
fuel cells and turbines.

2. A power storage unit, which can be a flywheel, battery, or ultra capacitor.

3. A drive unit, almost always now an electric motor that can use as a generator during
braking. Regenerative braking may increase the operational range about 8-13%.

Battery technology has not yet advanced sufficiently to economically substitute for an IC
engine, while retaining the carrying capacity, range, performance, and drivability of the
vehicle. Hybrid vehicles may enable this problem to be at least partially overcome, but
they remain expensive, and the current ZEV proposals exclude fuel cells and hybrids
systems, but this is being re-evaluated.

 
9. Fuel Cell:

 A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. A fuel cell converts the
chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water and in the process it produces electricity
(DC voltage) with water and heat as its by-product. In principle, a fuel cell operates
like a battery. Unlike battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging. It
will produce electricity as long as fuel is supplied.We know the other electrochemical
device is battery. It goes dead and you have to either throw it away or recharge it.
With a fuel cell, chemicals constantly flow into the cell so it never goes dead. As long
as there is a flow of chemicals into the cell, electricity will be generated.

There are different types of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry. Fuel cells are
usually classified by the type of electrolyte they use.
•Alkaline fuel cell
•Phosphoric fuel cell
•Solid oxide fuel cell
•Molten carbonate fuel cell

Construction:

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen

passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water
and heat.

The pressurized hydrogen gas (H 2) entering the fuel cell on the anode side, which is
negative post of the fuel cell. It conducts the electrons that are free from the
hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an external circuit. It has channels
etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of the catalyst.
Oxygen (or air) enters through the cathode, which is the positive post of fuel cell.
The cathode also has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the
surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit
to the catalyst where they can combine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form
water. The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated
material only conducts positively charged ions. The membrane blocks electrons. The
catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It
is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth.
The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum
can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst
faces the PEM.

 Working Principle:

 The pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering the fuel cell on the anode side. This gas
is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When a hydrogen molecule comes in
contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H + ions and two electrons
(e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way
through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return
to the cathode side of the fuel cell.
Chemistry of a fuel cell
 Anode side : 2H2  4H+ + 4e-
Cathode side : O2 + 4H+ + 4e-  2H2O
Net reaction : 2H2 + O2  2H2O

Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O 2) is being forced
through the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a
strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts the two H + ions through the
membrane, where they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from
the external circuit to form water.

This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 volts. To get this voltage
up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-
cell stack.A fuel cell system which includes a “fuel reformer” turns hydrocarbon or
alcohol fuels into hydrogen, which is then fed to the fuel cell.
 In the fuel cell-powered FCX-V3, Honda has realized a fuel cell system with integrated
control systems, a more compact drive motor, and a cabin large enough to seat four people.
The vehicle also features improved startup and quieter operation than previous versions for
improved viability as a commercial product. Its power plant includes a Ballard Power Systems
fuel cell stack, fueled by hydrogen stored under high pressure, combined with a newly
developed ultra-capacitor. The excellent continuous electric power generation of the fuel cell
stack and the powerful, instantaneous discharge capabilities of the ultra-capacitor have been
combined to realize a fuel cell-based power plant offering much-improved takeoff and
acceleration performance. In addition, regenerative energy systems, reduction of discharge
loss, and other measures have also.

Layout of FCHV elements

The size of the FC stack and hydrogen tank has decreased in size over the years to
make it practical in smaller vehicles The Toyota FCHV utilizes the same hybrid
technology perfected in the Toyota Prius. The fuel cell system features 4 hydrogen
fuel tanks, an electric motor, a nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) battery, and a power
control unit. The hydrogen gas is fed into the fuel cell stack where it is combined with
oxygen. The electricity produced by this chemical reaction is used to power the
electric motor and to charge the battery. The power control unit decides when to use
the battery and when to use the fuel cell stack to power the vehicle, the same
mechanism that manages the petrol engine and battery in the Prius. Unlike the Prius
and other current hybrids on sale, the FCHV emits no pollutants and its only by-
product is water vapour.
Advantages:
1. there are no emissions from the vehicle
2.the noise levels are very low
3.the vehicle is vibration free
4.operating range is comparable to conventional vehicles
5.highly efficient
6. Disadvantages:
7. storage and handling with some primary fuels such as hydrogen and natural gas is
difficult
8.it is difficult to match the electrical output to fluctuating vehicle demand
9.complicated controls are needed
 Applications:
 Fuel cells are powering
•Buses, trains, planes, scooters, even bicycles
•Vacuum cleaners, cellular phones, laptop computers
•Hospitals, banks, schools, police stations, credit card centers, etc

Fuel cells are electrochemical cells that directly oxidize the fuel at electrodes producing
electrical and thermal energy. The oxidant is usually oxygen from the air and the fuel
is usually gaseous, with hydrogen preferred. There has, so far, been little success
using low temperature fuel cells (< 200°C) to perform the direct oxidation of
hydrocarbon-based liquids or gases.
Methanol can be used as a source for the hydrogen by adding an on-board reformer.
The main advantage of fuel cells is their high fuel-to- electricity efficiency of about
40-60% of the net calorific value of the fuel. As fuel cells also produce heat that can
be used for vehicle climate control, fuel cells are the most likely candidate to replace
the IC engine as a primary energy source. Fuel cells are quiet and produce virtually
no toxic emissions, but they do require a clean fuel to avoid poisoning.
Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of SI:
Combustion in S I Engines:

 Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the fuel like

hydrogen and carbon combine with oxygen liberating heat energy and causing an
increase in temperature of gases. The conditions necessary for combustion are
 (i) The pressure of a combustible mixture
(ii) Initiation for combustion
(iii) Stabilization and propagation of flame in combustion chamber.

 In S I engines combustible mixture is generally supplied by the carburetor and the
combustion is initiated by an electric spark given by spark plug.

 Ignition Limits:

 Ignition of charge is only possible within certain limits of fuel-air ratio. These
“ignition limits” correspond approximately to those mixture ratios, at lean and rich
ends of the scale, where the heat released by spark is sufficient to initiate
combustion in the neighboring unburnt mixture. The flame will propagate only if the
temperature of the burnt gases exceeds approximately 1500k in the case of
hydrocarbon air mixture. The lower and upper ignition limits of the mixture depend
upon mixture ratio and temperature.
Stages of combustion in S I Engines:

 A typical theoretical Pressure- crank angle diagram, during the process of

compression (a b) combustion (b c) and expansion (c d) in an ideal for stroke spark
ignition engine is shown in the fig. In an ideal engine, combustion takes place at
constant volume. i.e. at TDC. But in actual engine this does not happen.
The pressure variation due to combustion in a practical engine is shown in figure
given below. ‘A’ is the point of producing spark (say 20 o before TDC). ‘B’ is the point
at which the beginning of pressure rise can be detected (say 8 o before TDC) and ‘C’
the attainment of peak pressure. Thus AB represents the first stage and BC the
second stage and CD the third stage.

Stages of combustion in SI engine

The first stage (A B) is referred to as the ignition lag or preparation phase in which
growth and the development of a self propagating nucleus of flame take place. This
is a chemical process depending upon temperature and pressure, the nature of fuel
and the proportion of the exhaust residual gas.

The second stage (B C) is a physical one and it is concerned with the spread of
flame throughout the combustion chamber. During the second stage the flame
propagates practically at a constant velocity. The rate of heat release depends
largely on the turbulence intensity and also on the reaction rate which is dependent
on mixture composition. The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat -
release because during this stage, the combustion chamber volume remains
practically constant.
Fuel air Ratio:

 Expressed as the ratio of mass of fuel to that of air.

 Stoichiometric fuel-air Ratio:

A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in the
mixture is called a chemically correct mixture or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio. A mixture
having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as rich mixture and
a mixture that contains less fuel is called a lean mixture.

Equivalence Ratio Actual Fuel-air Ratio

() 
Stoichiometric Fuel air Ratio
= 1 stoichiometirc

< 1 lean mixture

> 1 rich mixture

Homogeneous Mixture:

 In homogeneous gas mixture the fuel and oxygen molecules are more or less uniformly
distributed, = 1

 Flame front Propagation:

 For efficient combustion the rate of propagation of flame front within the cylinder is
quite critical. The two important factors which determine the rate of movement of flame
front across the combustion chamber are the “reaction rate” and “the transposition
rate”. The reaction rate is the result of a purely chemical combination process in which
the flame eats its way into the unburnt charge. The transposition rate is due to physical
movement of flame front relative to cylinder and is also the result of pressure
differential 6’n the burning gases and unburnt gases in combustion chamber.

The flame front progresses relatively slowly due to a low transposition rate and low
turbulence. The transposition of flame front is very little since change burned at the
start is very little. The reaction rate also low. Since spark plug is to be necessarily
located in a quince layer of gas i.e. close to the cylinder wall, the lack of turbulence
reduces the reaction rate and hence the flame speed.
Then the flame front leaves the quiescent zone and proceeds into more turbulent areas
(Area II) where it consumes a greater mass of mixture. So it progresses rapidly and at a
lowest rate (B C).

The volume of unburnt charge is very much less towards the end of flame travel and so
the transposition rate again becomes negligible thereby reducing the flame speed. The
reaction rate is also reduced again. Since the turbulence is relatively low Area III (C D).
Factors affecting flame speed:

 The flame velocity influences the rate of pressure rise in cylinder and it is related to
certain types of abnormal combustion that occur in Spark-ignition Engine.

 (i) Turbulence:

 The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures and increasing with increase in
turbulence.

 (ii) Fuel-Air Ratio:

 The highest flame velocities are obtained with somewhat richer mixture

 (iii) Temperature and Pressure:

 Flame increases with increase in temperature and pressure.

 (iv) Compression Ratio:

 Flame speed increases with increase in Compression Ratio

(v) Engine output:

  (vi) Engine speed:

 The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed since the increase in
engine speed increases the turbulence inside cylinder.

 Concept of Combustion Quality:

 Concept of Combustion quality for Otto cycle engines on the basis of low closely the
actual cycle approaches ideal Otto cycle.

 
Effect of Engine variables on ignition Delay:

 The ignition lag in terms of crank angle is 10o to 20o and in terms of seconds, 0.0015
seconds. The duration of the ignition lag depends on following factors.

 1. Fuel:

 Higher self ignition temperature of fuel, the longer the ignition lag.

 2. Mixture Ratio:

 The ignition lag is smallest for mixture ratio which gives maximum temperature.

 3. Initial Temperature and Pressure:

 Ignition lag decrease with an increase in the temperature and pressure of gas at the time
of spark. Thus increasing the intake temperature and increasing the compression Ratio
and retarding the spark, all reduces the ignition lag.
 4. Electrode Gap:

 If gap is too small, quenching of flame nucleus may occur and range of fuel-air ratio for
development of a flame nucleus is reduced.

 5. Turbulence:

 Ignition lag is not much affected by turbulence intensity. Turbulence is directly

proportional to Engine speed. When the speed is increased the crank angle measured is
increased.

ABNORMAL COMBUSTION:

 In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across the combustion
chamber in a fairly uniform manner. Under certain operating conditions the combustion
deviates from its normal course leading to loss of performance. This is called abnormal
combustion or knocking.

 Consequences are

  (i) Loss of power

(ii) Pre-ignition

(iii) Mechanical damage to Engine.

Phenomenon of knock in S I Engine:

Heat release due to combustion increases the temperature and consequently the pressure of
burnt part of mixture above those of the unburned mixture. For the pressure equalization the
burned part of mixture will expand, and compress the unburned mixture adiabatically thereby
increasing the pressure and temperature. This process continues as the flame front.

If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition temperature of

the fuel and remains at or above this temperature during the period of ignition lag.
Spontaneous ignition or auto ignition occurs at various “Pinpoint” locations. This
phenomenon is called knocking. The process of auto ignition leads towards engine knock.

The advancing flame front compresses the end charge, thus raising its temperature. Also
some preflame oxidation may take place in the end charge leading to further increase in
temperature. If the temperature of end charge is not self ignition temp, the charge will not
auto ignite.

However if the end charge reaches its auto ignition temperature the charge will auto ignite,
leading to knocking combustion. During the preflame reaction period flame front could move
from BB’ to only CC’.

 
Because of auto ignition another flame front starts travelling in the opposite direction to the
main flame front. When the two flame fronts collide, a severe pressure pulse is generated. This
pressure wave produces combustion chamber vibrations. The human ear can detect the
resulting thudding sound and consequent noise from vibrations.

Effects:
 1. Noise and Roughness.
2. Mechanical Damage.
3. Carbon Deposits.
4. Increase in heat transfer.
 THEORIES OF DETONATION:
 Two general theories of Knock are;
(a) The auto-ignition Theory
(b) The Detonation Theory
 (a) Auto-Ignition Theory:

 Auto ignition refers to initiation of combustion without necessity of flame. The auto-ignition
theory of Knock assumes that the flame velocity is normal before the onset of auto ignition and
that gas vibrations are created by a number of end-gas elements auto-igniting almost
simultaneously.

Extensive decomposition of the fuel can take place during the preflame reactions, producing
aldehydes peroxides, hydrogen peroxide and free radical. The energy released by these
reactions and the presence of active chemical species and free radicals greatly accelerate the
chemical reactions and leads to auto ignition.

 
(b) Detonation Theory:

 A true detonation wave formed by pre-flame reactions has been proposed as the
mechanism for explosive auto-ignition. Such a shock wave would compress the gases to
pressures and temperatures where the reaction should be practically instantaneously.

 CHEMISTRY OF KNOCK AND DETONATION:

 Complex preflame reactions proceed the auto ignition. In the preflame reactions many
intermediate products appear which an aid to auto-ignition is. By spectrum analysis of
burning gases Ricardo and Thornycraft detected the presence of aldehydes in the cylinder
contents immediately prior to combustion. Others formed that knocking occurred when
aldehydes and peroxides were present in the cylinder gases but no knocking occurred
when they were absent. It will be noticed that the amounts of CO2 and CO increases and

amount of O2 falls as combustion proceeds. No positive presence of aldehydes and

peroxides in detonation wave.

 EFFECT OF ENGINE VARIABLE ON KNOCK OR DETONATION

 To prevent knock in S I Engine, the end gas should have,

(a) Low temperature

(b) Low density

(c) Long ignition

(d) Non-reactive composition

(a) Temperature Factors:

 When temperature increases delay period are lower and greater formation of chemical
species are accelerated by an increase in temperature loss. The temperature of unburned
mixture is increased by following factors.

 1. Raising Compression Ratio

2. Supercharging

3. Raising the inlet temperature

4. Raising coolant Temperature

(b) Density Factors:

 Increasing the density of the unburned mixture by any of the following methods will
increase the possibility of knock in engine.
1. Increasing the Compression Ratio
2. Opening the throttle
3. Supercharging the engine
4. Increasing the inlet pressure
 (c) Time Factors:

 Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignition conditions by

any of the following factors will increase the possibility of knock in S I engine.
1. Increasing flame travel distance.
2. Decreasing the turbulence of mixture.
3. Decreasing the speed of engine.
 (d) Composition:

 The properties of the fuel and the fuel-air ratio are the primary means for controlling
knock.
(i) Octane rating of fuel
(ii) Fuel air Ratio
(iii) Humidity of Air

 CONTROL OF DETONATION:

 To get maximum efficiency the engine must be designed for highest Compression
Ratio. But that can be used is limited by detonation. The engine is, therefore, so
designed that detonation take place at low engine speed and high manifold pressure,
i.e. full throttle. To prevent detonation the ignition is automatically retarded, say 20 o to
10o before TDC.
Knocking can be controlled by
(i) Increasing Engine rpm
(ii) Rotating spark
(iii) Reducing pressure in inlet manifold by throttling
(iv) Using too lean or too rich
(v) Water injection
 Following are certain design features which reduces knock:

 (1) Use of Lower Compression Ratio

(2) Increasing Turbulence

(3) Relocating spark plug or use of two or more spark plug

(4) Suitable Combustion chamber design to reduce flame length and temperature of end gas.
S I Engine Combustion Chamber Designs:

 The design of combustion chamber involves the shape of combustion chamber, the location of
spark plug and disposition of inlet and exhaust valve. Bring requirements of a good combustion
chamber.
(i) High power output with minimum octane requirement
(ii) High thermal Efficiency
(iii) Smooth engine operation
 Various factors to achieve these requirements are
 (a) High power output requires
1. High compression ratio
2. Small or no excess air
 (b) High thermal efficiency requires
1. High Compression Ratio
2. Small heat loss during combustion
 (c) Smooth Engine operation requires
1. Moderate rate of pressure rise during combustion
2. Absence of Detonation

 Octane number:

 It is a comparison between the reference fuels consisting of mixture of isooctane and n-
heptanes to unknown petrol and gasoline. Isooctane is low boiling point branched chain
compound has a very slight tendency to knock. Octane number for an unknown fuel is defined as
the percentage of isooctane in the primary Reference fuel that gives the same knock intensity.

 
Flash point:

 The temperature at which the vapours of oil flash when subject to a naked flame is
known as flash point. If container is closes it is called closed flash point and if open it is
called open flash point.

 Fire point:

 It is the temperature at which the oil, if once lit with flame, will burn steadily at least for 5
seconds. This is usually 11oC higher than open flash point.

 Viscosity index:

 The velocity of an oil is affected by its temperature. Higher the temperature lower the
viscosity. This variation of viscosity of an oil with changes in temperature is measured by
its viscosity index. The oil is compared with two reference oils having same viscosity at
99oC one, paraffinic based oil is arbitrarily assigned as index of zero and the other,
naphthenic base oil, is assigned as index 100.

High viscosity index relatively smaller changes with temperature

Paraffin Cn H2n+2

Naphthalene C2 H2n

Factors affecting the delay period:

 1. Compression ratio

2. Engine speed

3. Output

4. Atomization of fuel and duration of injection

5. Injection timing

6. Quality of the fuel

7. Intake temperature

8. Intake Pressure

 
Compression ratio:

 Increase in compression ratio reduces the delay period because it raises both
temperature and density. With increase in compression ratio the temperature of the air
increases .At the same time the minimum auto-ignition temperature decreases due to
increased density of compressed air, resulting in closer contact of the molecules which,
thereby, reduces the time of reaction when fuel is injected.

When the compression ratio is high the delay period is low and therefore the rise of
pressure on ignition is lower. The volumetric efficiency and power also reduces when
the CR is high because it increases the unused percentage.

 Speed:

 The delay period can be given either in terms of absolute time (in milliseconds) or in
terms of crank angle rotation. At constant speed, delay time is proportional to delay
angle. But in variable speed operation delay period may decrease in terms of
millisecond but increase in terms of crank angles.

Time delay is increased due to increase in speed because

(i) The loss of heat during compression decreases with the result that both temperature
and pressure of the compressed air tend to rise.

(ii) The increase in turbulence.

 Output:

 With an increase in engine output the air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperature
increase and hence delay period decreases.

 Atomization and duration of injection (High Fuel injection Pressure):

 Higher fuel-injection pressure increases the degree of atomization. The fineness of

atomization reduces ignition delay, due to higher surface volume ratio. Air atomization
factor will be reduced due to fuel spray path being shorter. Also with smaller droplets,
the aggregate area of inflammation will increase after ignition, resulting in higher
pressure rise during the second stage of combustion so we select the “optimum group
mean diameter of droplet”.
 Injection timing:
 As the temperature and pressure at the beginning of injection are lower for higher
ignition advance, the delay period increases with increase in injection advance. “The
optimum angle of injection advance depends on many factors, but generally it varies
between 12o to 20o TDC.
Quality of fuel:

 Self ignition temperature is the most important property of the fuel which affects the
delay period. Also fuels with higher octane number giver lower delay period and
smoother engine operation. Other properties of the fuel which affect the delay period
are volatility, latent heat, viscosity and surface tension. First two affect the time taken
to form an envelope of vapour. The other two influence the fitness for atomization.

 Temperature:

 Pressure of intake air increases, the delay is decreases. Pressure increases the total
pressure produced by combustion is high. So output is high. So we can inject more
fuel, because cylinder contain more air.
  Air-fuel Ratio:

With increase in air-fuel ratio (leaner mixture) the combustion temperature are lowered
and cylinder wall temperature are reduced and hence the delay period increases.
 Engine Size:
 Large engine having low speed.

Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of CI:

 COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES:

 Air-fuel ratio in CI engines:

 In the C I engine, for a given speed, and irrespective of load, an approximately
constant supply of air enters the cylinder. The CI engine therefore can be termed
constant air supply engine. With change in load the quantity of fuel is change, which
changes the air-fuel ratio. The overall air-fuel ration may thus vary from about 100:1 at
no load and 20:1 at full load.
Whatever may by the overall air-fuel ratio in a CI engine due to injection of fuel, there
is a heterogeneous mixture with air-fuel ratio varying widely in different areas within
the chamber. There would be area where the mixture is very lean or very rich.
However there would be certain areas where the local-air-fuel ratio is within
combustible limits and there under favourable conditions of temperature, ignition
occurs.

DIESEL KNOCK:

 In CI engines the ignition process takes place over a definite interval of time. First few
droplets is injected and that droplets are passing through the ignition delay period, at
the same time additional droplets are being injected into the chamber. If the ignition
delay of the fuel being injected is short, the first few droplets will commence the actual
burning phase in a relatively short time after injection and a relatively small amount of
fuel will be accumulated in the chamber. Then the pressure rise will be moderate.

If the ignition delay is quite long, so much fuel can accumulate, that cause rapid rate of
pressure rise in cylinder, such situation produces the extreme pressure differentials and
violent gas vibrations known as “knocking”. In the SI engine, knocking occurs near the
end of combustion where as in C I engine, knocking occurs near the beginning of
combustion. In order to decrease the tendency of knock it is necessary to start the
actual burning as early as possible after the injection begins. I.e. reduce the Ignition
delay and thus the amount of fuel present when the actual burning of the first few
droplets starts.

 
 Comparison of Knock in SI and CI Engines:

 1. In spark- ignition engines, the auto ignition of the end gas away from the spark
plug, most likely near the end of the combustion causes knocking. But in
compression ignition engines the auto ignition of the charge causing knocking is at
the start of combustion.

2. In spark-ignition engine, the charge that auto ignites is homogeneous and

therefore intensity of knocking or the rate of pressure rise at explosive auto ignition
is likely to more than that in compression-ignition engines.

3. In compression-ignition engines, only air is compressed during the compression

stroke and the ignition can take place only after fuel is injected just before the TDC.
Thus there can be no preignition in compression-ignition engines as in spark-ignition
engines.

4. In the SI engine it is relatively easy to distinguish between knocking and non-

knocking operation as the human ear easily finds the distinction. In the CI engine
there is no definite distinction between normal and knocking combustion.

 Factors tending to reduce knocking SI and CI Engines

S.No Factors SI CI
Engine Engine
1 Self-ignition temperature of fuel High Low
2 Time lag or delay period for fuel Long Short
.
3 Compression ratio Low High

4 Inlet temperature Low High

.
5 Inlet pressure Low High
.
6 Combustion chamber wall Low High
. temperature
Cetane number:

 The cetane rating of a diesel fuel is measures of its ability to auto ignite quickly when it
is injected into the compressed and heated air in the engine. “The cetane number of a
fuel is the percentage by volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane and methyl
naphthalene (C10H7CH3) that has the same performance in the standard test engine as
that of the fuel.Higher the cetane rating of fuel lesser is the property for diesel knock.

 Methods of controlling diesel knock:

 Reducing delay period by

1. Reducing heat loss Increase speed.

2. Adding chemical dopes, called ignition accelerators.

Eg: ethyl-nitric and amyl-nitrate. The chemical dopes increase the preflame reactions
and reduce the flash point.

3. Knocking is due to high rate of pressure rise because fuel collection in the cylinder at
that time is maximum. It can be reduced by arranging the injector so that only a small
amount of fuel is injected first.

 The CI Engine Combustion Chambers:

 The most important function of the CI engine combustion chamber is to provide proper
mixing of fuel and air in a short time. In SI engine this process is performed by
carburetor. For this purpose an organized air movement, called air swirl, is provided to
produce high relative velocity between the fuel droplets and air.

 Methods of generating air swirl in the CI Engine:

1. By directing the flow of the air during its entry to the cylinder, known as induction
swirl. This method is used in open combustion chambers.

2. By forcing the air through a tangential passage into a separate swirl chamber during
the compression stroke, known as compression swirl. This method is used in swirl
chambers.
3. By use of the initial pressure rise due to partial combustion to create swirl
turbulence, known as combustion induced swirl. This method is used in pre-
combustion chambers and air-cell chambers.

1. Induction Swirl:

 In four-stroke engines induction swirl can be obtained by two methods.

(i) By careful formation of the air intake passages, and

(ii) By making a portion of the circumference of the inlet valve. The angle of mask is
90- 140o of circumference.

In the stoke engine the induction swirl is created by suitable inlet part forms.

The induction swirl is usually augmented by secondary air movement called “squish”.
Squish is the flow of air radially inwards the combustion recess. If a marked inlet
valve is used, it provides an obstruction in the passage which reduces the volumetric
efficiency. With induction swirl we have to use multiple-orifice injector (number of
holes from 4 to 8).

 Advantages:

 1. The high excess air allows lower average combustion temperature. i.e. low heat
losses permits high thermal efficiency.

2. In the open combustion chamber the intensity of swirl is low. i.e. easy cold
starting.

3. The swirl is obtained during induction stroke no additional work is done in

producing the swirl.

 Disadvantages:

 1. Swirl induced is generally weak in intensity, so multi, orifice nozzles with high
injection pressure are require

2. Small nozzle opening are more frequently closed by carbon deposits.

3. Use of shrouded valve lowers the volumetric efficiency.

 Direct injection quiescent chamber Direct injection swirl in chamber

2. Compression Swirl:

  A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion

space is divided into two distinct components connected by restricted passages. The
create considerable pressure differences between them during the combustion process.

 “Swirl chamber”:

 Swirl chamber consists of a spherical shaped chamber separated from the engine
cylinder and located in the cylinder head. Into this chamber, about 50% of the air is
transferred during compression stroke. A throat connects the chamber to the cylinder
which enters the chamber in a tangential direction, so that the air coming into this
chamber is given a strong rotary movement inside the swirl chamber and after
combustion, the products rush back in to the cylinder through the same throat at much
higher velocity. This causes considerable heat loss.

Advantages:
1. Due to strong swirl a single orifice injector with low pressure for injection is required
(1 to 2mm, 125 to 150 bar)

2. Due to strong swirl there is a greater utilization of air

3. Swirl is proportional to speed.

4. The swirl chamber produces smoother engine operation because the small chamber
absorbs initial shock of peak pressure and saves the piston from extreme pressure
variations.
Disadvantages:
 1. The work done during compression is considerable and there is a corresponding loss during
expansion. Therefore mechanical efficiency is lower.
2. Greater heat loss to the combustion chamber walls.
3. Cylinder construction is more expensive.

 Combustion induced Swirl:

 (a) Pre-combustion chamber:

 The precombustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and its volume accounts for about
20% of the total combustion space. During the compression stroke the piston forces the air into
the precombustion chamber. The fuel is injected into the prechamber and combustion in injected.
The resulting pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with air and their combustion
products to rush out into the main cylinder at high velocity through the small holes. Thus it
creates both strong secondary turbulence and distributes the flaming fuel droplets though out the
air in the main combustion chamber. The rate of pressure rise and the maximum pressure is lower
to those of open type chamber.

(b) Air-cell chamber:

 In this chamber the clearance volume is divided into two parts, one in the main cylinder and the
other called the energy cell. The energy cell is divided into two parts, major and minor, which are
separated from each other and from the main chamber. Nozzle injects the fuel across the main
combustion chamber towards the open neck of the air cell At the TDC, the difference in pressure
will by high and air will be forced at high velocity through the opening into the energy cell and this
moment the fuel-injection also begins. Combustion starts initially in the main chamber where the
temperature is comparatively higher but the rate of burning is very slow due to absence of any air
motion. In the energy cell, the fuel is well mixed with air and high pressure is developed due to
heat-release and the hot burning gases blow out through the small passage into the main
chamber. This high velocity jet produces swirling motion in the main chamber and thereby
thoroughly mixes the fuel with air resulting in complete combustion.

 
Introduction about Connected Vehicles – The Future of Transportation

The connected car -a vehicle capable of accessing to the Internet, of communicating

with smart devices as well as other cars and road infrastructures, and of collecting
real-time data from multiple sources- is likely to play a fundamental role in the
foreseeable Internet Of Things. In a context ruled by very strong competitive forces,
a significant amount of car manufacturers and software and hardware developers
have already embraced the challenge of providing innovative solutions for new
generation vehicles. Today’s cars are asked to relieve drivers from the most stressful
operations needed for driving, providing them with interesting and updated
entertainment functions. In the meantime, they have to comply to the increasingly
stringent standards about safety and reliability. The aim of this paper is to provide
an overview of the possibilities offered by connected functionalities on cars and the
associated technological issues and problems, as well as to enumerate the currently
available hardware and software solutions and their main features.
Definitions of connected car

Modern cars are equipped with several types of connections, either internal (the bus

systems connecting sensors and computers on board, for instance) or external (the
protocols enabling communications between moving vehicles). Therefore, different
definitions have been given in recent times for a “connected” car, each one
highlighting a subset of elements of the complete picture. Earlier formalizations
have posed their main focus on the pervasive presence of software controlling the
car, with in-vehicle wireless networks connecting a large amount of electronic
components. Others included elements from the outside in the connected car
domain, considering services provided from automotive companies. According to
[Kleberger et al. 2011], for instance, “the connected car consists of three domains:
the vehicle itself, consisting of the in-vehicle network and the ECUs, the portal at the
automotive company, and the communication link between them”.
More accurate definitions include all other connections a modern car is equipped with:
according to the American Department of Transportation, “Connected vehicle applications
provide connectivity among vehicles to enable crash prevention, between vehicles and the
infrastructure to enable safety, mobility and environmental benefits; among vehicles,
infrastructure, and wireless devices to provide continuous real-time connectivity to all
system users”[US Department of Transportation 2015]. It is worth to emphasize that, in
this case, general networking capabilities are considered, not indispensably a connection to
the Internet.

However, the most recent literature considers the constant connection to the Internet, and
the presence of Internet-related services on the in-car dashboard, as essential elements of
the connected car. With the growing diffusion of smart phones and wearable devices, the
connection with them has also gained importance. Therefore, the connected car can be
seen as “a vehicle that provides Internet access to all the mobile devices used by the
driver and passengers. It accesses the Internet via cellular or satellite communications and
provides tablet-sized screens for passengers or a Wi-Fi hotspot for passengers’ own
devices”. An even more concise definition, given at the 2013 Automotive News World
Congress by IBM, identifies a connected car as “a vehicle capable of seamless integration
with multiple systems, connecting consumers to the digital world” .

Overview of the Connected Car System

A connected car is a vehicle

—capable of accessing the Internet at anytime, either using a built in device, or

brought in user devices;

—equipped with a set of modern applications and dynamic contextual functionalities,

offering advanced infotainment features to the driver and passengers;

—capable of interacting with other smart devices on the road, or in mechanical

shops, leveraging vehicle-to-road infrastructure communication technologies;

—capable of interacting with other vehicles, leveraging vehicle-to-vehicle

communication technologies.”

This definition is in fact shown in graphical form in figure 3. In this picture the car is
in itself a system with a huge number of computing devices and communication
buses.

Besides it has connections to the Internet (directly or via brought-in devices), with
other vehicles, with road infrastructure, with mechanical shops via OBD port. The car
typically has a dashboard that is the main device to offer services and applications.
This work has the objective of summarizing the state of the art of the solutions that
have been proposed until today, highlighting the customer’s focus and the new
challenges for car manufacturers, developers and software engineers.
Future of Autonomous Vehicles
Introduction

• A vehicle that get from one point to another point, without human interaction.

•To achieve this, they have to use a number of well placed sensors that detect and
continuously observe the location and movement of other vehicles, people, and traffic
lights, etc.

AV (Autonomous Vehicle) TECHNOLOGIES VS. MANUAL OPERATIONS

•Human perception and reaction time: 1.5 Sec.
•AV reaction perception time: 0.1 Sec. using forward, rearward and side sensors
•This capability can reduce the “safe spacing” between vehicles by 50%.
AV Technology Projected Impacts may include:
•Increases in highway capacity by ~ 100%
•Increases in expressway travel speeds by >20%
•Significant reductions in accidents and injuries
•Measurable reductions in future capital improvement needs and being able to allow for
higher levels of travel demand
ADAS – Safe and efficient drive
Almost all vehicle accidents are caused by human error, which can be avoided with
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). The role of ADAS is to prevent deaths
and injuries by reducing the number of car accidents and the serious impact of those
that cannot be avoided.
Essential safety-critical ADAS applications include:
•Pedestrian detection/avoidance
•Lane departure warning/correction
•Traffic sign recognition
•Automatic emergency braking
•Blind spot detection
These lifesaving systems are key to ensuring the success of ADAS applications,
incorporating the latest interface standards and running multiple vision-based
algorithms to support real-time multimedia, vision co-processing, and sensor fusion
subsystems. The “Smart Phonezation” of ADAS applications is the beginning steps to
realization of autonomous vehicles.
How does ADAS work?
Automobiles are the foundation of the next generation of mobile-connected devices,
with rapid advances being made in autonomous vehicles. Autonomous application
solutions are partitioned into various chips, called SoCs (systems on a chip). These
chips connect sensors to actuators through interfaces and high-performance ECUs
(electronic controller units).
Self-driving cars use a variety of these applications and technologies to gain 360-
degree vision, both near (in the vehicle’s immediate vicinity) and far. That means
hardware designs are using more advanced process nodes to meet ever-higher
performance targets while simultaneously reducing demands on power and
footprint. 
ADAS Applications
Significant automotive safety improvements in the past (e.g., shatter-resistant glass, three-
point seatbelts, airbags) were passive safety measures designed to minimize injury during an
accident. Today, ADAS systems actively improve safety with the help of embedded vision by
reducing the occurrence of accidents and injury to occupants.
The implementation of cameras in the vehicle involves a new AI ​function that uses sensor
fusion to identify and process objects. Sensor fusion, similar to the human brain process
information, combines large amounts of data with the help of image recognition software,
ultrasound sensors, lidar, and radar. This technology can physically respond faster than a
human driver ever could. It can analyze streaming video in real time, recognize what the
video shows, and determine how to react to it.
Why is ADAS important?
According to the August 2016 Traffic Safety Facts Research Note by the National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), “The Nation lost 35,092 people in crashes on U.S.
roadways during 2015.” This 7.2% increase was “the largest percentage increase in nearly
50 years.” An analysis revealed that about 94% of those accidents were caused by human
error, and the rest by the environment and mechanical failures. The opportunity to reduce
car accidents is making automotive ADAS even more critical. Automatic emergency braking,
pedestrian detection, surround view, parking assist, driver drowsiness detection, and gaze
detection are among the many ADAS applications that assist drivers with safety-critical
functionality to reduce car accidents and save lives. 
The future of ADAS
The increasing amount of automotive electronic hardware and software requires significant
changes in today’s automobile design process to address the convergence of conflicting
goals:
•Increased reliability
•Reduced costs
•Shorter development cycles
The trend is shifting from distributed ADAS electronic controller units (ECUs) to a more
integrated ADAS domain controller with centralized ECUs. This means that we are currently
at what SAE International designates as Level 2 (Partial Driving Automation), where the
vehicle can control both steering and accelerating/decelerating but falls short of self-driving
because a human sits in the driver’s seat and can take control of the car at any time.
IOT ENHANCED MOBILITY

IoT devices are deployed in a number of areas within the transportation sector,
notably in traffic congestion systems, telematics systems within vehicles, tools and
ticketing and security and surveillance to name but a few.

IoT for transportation is the networking of objects via embedded sensors, actuators
and other devices that gather and transmit data about real-world activities. The use
of IoT enabled technology is changing the way that the transportation sector
operates. We wish to take a closer look at some of the areas within the
transportation sector that are utilising IoT to transform how transportation systems
gather and make use of data.
Benefits of IoT for Transportation

Some wider benefits that apply to the use of IoT technology within the transportation
sector include:
1.      Enhance Customer Experience

IoT technologies help to provide customers with more accurate, up-to-date, real-time
data to better plan journeys and improve communication.
2.      Improved Safety

The ability to track things such as train speeds, aircraft part conditions, roadway
temperatures and the number of vehicles at an intersection using IoT enabled
technology can all help to improve the safety of our transit systems worldwide.
3.      Operational Performance

Transport Agencies adopting IoT technologies are already starting to see benefits in
terms of operational performance. Cities can better monitor critical infrastructures
and develop efficient processes to minimise operating costs and improve system
capacity.
4.      Environmental Improvements

By better monitoring congestion, IoT enabled systems can react quickly to evolving
traffic patterns and return real-time data to help people to plan their journeys better.
Reducing congestion and energy usage have a positive impact on the environment.
Five applications of IoT technology in transportation
These benefits of IoT technology in transportation can be applied through a number of
applications within the sector. Here are five of the most common applications:
Traffic Management
Roading is by far the biggest segment within transportation when it comes to the
adoption of IoT technologies and this is expected to grow as we head towards 2023.
Within cities, data can be collected from CCTV feeds which transmit vehicle-related data
to traffic management centres.  Applications using IoT technology include:
Smart parking
Traffic lights
Smart accident assistance
Toll and Ticketing
Conventional toll systems are becoming rapidly outdated. With the increase in vehicles
on the roads, queues at toll booths have become a common sight, not to mention the
manpower needed to operate toll booths on busy highways. Whilst automated tolls,
using a RFID tag, have improved the flow of traffic, further improvements have been
made possible by the use of IoT technology.
Many of today’s modern vehicles are equipped with IoT connectivity. A vehicle can be
detected up to a kilometre away from a tolling station, correctly identified and the
barrier lifted for the vehicle to pass through. Alternatively, for older vehicles, a
registered smartphone could serve the same purpose, taking automatic payment from
the digital wallet linked on the phone.
Connected Cars
As mentioned above, cars today rely on connectivity and a key part of that is many new
cars are now equipped with internet connectivity, sensors and actuators, all monitoring
a wide range of applications from brakes and engine to the control of tyre pressure and
exhaust gas composition.
In the future, connected cars will use the in-vehicles networks, radar and cameras to
help detect and communicate with one other, prevent collisions and to help promote
smooth traffic flow.
Vehicle Tracking Systems
Vehicle tracking systems are typically used within the freight segment to help
companies manage their fleets effectively. They also help to monitor driver behaviour
and can collect data which informs on idling time and driving style. Examples of IoT-
powered functionality include:
•Trip scheduling
•Fleet tracking
•Driving times and driver rest break scheduling
•Alerts for speeding, harsh cornering, acceleration or braking
•Monitoring of vehicle load
•Distance travelled and fuel consumption
Public Transport Management

One key area in which NEC has been operating is smart transportation, with a focus
on the public transport segment. IoT technologies are already in wide use in this
segment and our solutions, including integrated ticketing and automated fare
collection, passenger information systems, passenger information display
systems and advanced vehicle Logistics solutions, all utilising IoT technology to help
solve social and economic issues such as traffic congestion in public transport. IoT
technology for connected public transport systems provides the following benefits:

Real-time vehicle tracking – this helps public transport agencies better

communicate with customers and provide accurate arrival times through both mobile
devices and passenger information displays at transit stops and stations

Data analysis and real-time management – the technology allows transit

agencies to monitor progress in real-time and make adjustments for unpredicted
incidents such as accidents, road works, emergencies etc., helping to re-route and
make journeys more efficient

Personalised travel information – transit agencies can track and monitor

commuter behaviour and travel patterns and deliver personalised information direct
to their smart phone on key changes such as delays, station closures or re-routing

IoT for Transportation is a rapidly growing sector and the benefits of utilising IoT
technology are wide and varied. There are of course potential drawbacks to the use
of IoT technology – security is an issue that can’t be overlooked, with cyber-
criminals targeting IoT devices. Adding more IoT devices to a network can increase
the vulnerability of that network so security needs to be at the heart of any decision
around the adoption of IoT technology.
Links to Videos:

1.Hybrid vehicle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0yBLbbO-7w

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aejXxcR7DL8

2. Electric vehicle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SAxXUIre28

3. Fuel cell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4pXAmljdUA

4. Hydrogen Fuel cell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9zgx-PlDEKA

5. Biodiesel production:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Wn-kD5YzqA
 5.4 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

Assignments (NPTEL)
1. Hydrogen is the best source of energy because
 Higher cetane number
 Low emission
 Number of ways to obtain hydrogen
 Higher octane number

2. Alcohols can be used in the SI engines since they

 Have higher octane percentage
 Flame is visible
 Higher volumetric efficiency
 Avoid vapour lock in the exhaust system

3. For avoiding the ignition delay in the CI engine, engine should have
 Higher percentage of cetane quantity in fuel
 Higher octane number
 Higher temperature of chamber
 Higher amount of oxygen

4. List out the stable compounds from the following list: Paraffin, Nepthane,
Benzene, Olefin, Di-olefin
 paraffin, nepthane, olefin
 olefin, di-olefin, nepthane
 paraffin, nepthane, benzene
 none of the above

5. Natural gas is used as a vehicle fuel in what two forms?

 Cold natural gas (CNG) and hot natural gas (HNG)
 Solid natural gas (SNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG)
 Compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG)
 Compressed natural gas (CNG) and expanded natural gas (ENG)
6. What are common ethanol blends in India?
E10 and E100
E10 and E85
E0 and E85
 E25 and E75

7. Which of the following statements is true:

Ethanol is produced from renewable resources but is low octane
Ethanol is high octane but comes from nonrenewable sources
Ethanol comes from nonrenewable sources and is low octane
Ethanol comes from renewable sources and is high octane

8. Which type(s) of electric vehicle produce(s) no emissions?

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs)
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)

9. Currently, most hydrogen vehicles use:

Liquid hydrogen
Fuel cells powered by hydrogen
A combination of hydrogen and diesel
Gaseous hydrogen

10. Propane vehicles are classified in two ways:

Dedicated and bifuel
Committed and bifuel
Dedicated and mix use
Committed and mix use
 5.5 PART A – QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
1. List the advantages of hydrogen fuel used in automobiles. K1
 It can be manufactured from water through electrolysis CO5
process
 It does not contain carbon. Hence, CO and unburned HC
emissions are not present
 The flame speed is highest. Hence it results in high thermal
efficiency
 It has wide ignition limits.
2. What is a hybrid vehicle? K1 CO5
A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power
sources to move the vehicle. The term most commonly refers to
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an internal
combustion engine and one or more electric motors.

3. What is a fuel cell? K1 CO5

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts a source fuel
into an electrical current and water. It generates electricity inside a
cell through reactions between a fuel and an oxidant, triggered in
the presence of an electrolyte.
4. Write the composition of LPG and CNG. K1 CO5
Composition of CNG
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%
Composition of LPG:
Propane= 30 % and Butane = 70 %
5. Define detonation and pre-ignition. K1 CO5
The abnormal combustion occurring in IC engines is called as
detonation. This results in sudden rate of pressure rise, abnormal
heat release, heavy vibrations of the engine and loud noise
operation.
The ignition of the air-fuel mixture before the introduction of the
spark in the combustion chamber
is called as pre-ignition.
6. What are the advantages of an electric car? K1 CO5
 No emissions from an electric car
 It does not depend upon the availability fossil fuels
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co

State the advantages of fuel cell. K1 CO5

 Higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines.
 Quiet operation.
 Don’t need conventional fuels such as oil or gas and can
therefore reduce economic dependence on oil producing countries,
7 creating greater energy security for the user nation.
 The maintenance of fuel cells is simple since there are few
moving parts in the system.

What are the alternative fuels? K1 CO5

Alcohols, Hydrogen, Natural Gas, CNG, LNG, LPG, Bio Gas, Producer
8 Gas, Coke oven Gas, Water Gas, Gasohol, Biodiesel

What is CNG? K1 CO5

9 Compressed Natural Gas. It is typically stored in a tank at a
pressure of 3,000 to 3,600 pounds per square inch

What is BIO- DIESEL? Biodiesel is a non-petroleum based diesel fuel K1 CO5

10 which consists of the mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids
derived from vegetable oil and animal fats.

Define flame speed. K1 CO5

11 The speed at which flame travels inside the combustion chamber is
called as flame speed. The unit is m/s

List out the various forms of natural gas. K1 CO5

 Natural Gas (NG)
12
 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

What are the properties of CNG? K1 CO5

 Colorless
 Odorless
13
 Lighter than air
 Non - toxic
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S. Question and Answers K Perat

No leve ining
l Co
14 List out the various forms of natural gas. K1 CO5
 Natural Gas (NG)
 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

15 What are the main components of electric and hybrid K1 CO5

vehicles?
 Gasoline engine
 Fuel tank
 Generator
 Electric motor
 Battery
 Transmission elements
16 What are the advantages of fuel cell? K1 CO5
 The only by product from the fuel cell is either water or
CO2, which can be safely disposed.
 It is compact in size
 As long as there is a supply of fuel, there will be generation
of electricity.
17 What are the advantages of Gasohol? K1 CO5
Gasohol – It is the mixture of 10 % Ethanol + 90 % unleaded
gasoline
 10 % fuel savings in terms of consumption of petrol
 Less emissions than conventional petrol fuelled vehicles
18 Define energy intensity. K1 CO5
The evolution of the ratio of energy use to economic output is
called energy intensity. The ratio is usually depicted as E / GDP
where E stands for energy and GDP stands for gross domestic
product i.e. economic output.

19 Define auto-ignition temperature of fuels. K1 CO5

Auto-ignition temperature is a temperature at which the fuel will
self-ignite. Selfignition is a concern in environment where the fuel
might escape and come into contact with hot engine parts.
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S. Question and Answers K Perat

No leve ining
l Co
20 Write down the advantages of propane gas. K1 CO5
Advantages of propane asfuels in automobiles:
(i) It is cheaper than gasoline today.
(ii) It is widely available clean fuel today.
(iii) It produces lower emissions of ozone - forming hydrocarbons
and toxics.
(iv) It is elcellent fuel especially for fleet vehicles.
21 What is meant by reformulated and oxygenated gasoline? K1 CO5
The petroleum industry is beginning to market gasoline
formulations that emit less hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide and toxics than conventional gasoline. These new
gasoline is called reformulated and oxygenated gasoline.

22 Write short notes on ethanol based engines. K1 CO5

Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles even if it is
used to power other vehicles such as farm tractors, boats and
airplanes. Ethanol (E 100) consumption in an engine is
approximately 51% higher than gasoline since the energy per unit
volume of ethanol is 34% less than gasoline. The higher
compression ratio in an ethanol-only engine provides the increased
power output and better fuel economy than lower compression
ratio. Usually, ethanol-only engines give slightly better power and
torque output than gasoline-powered engines.
23 Define the process of electrolysis. K1 CO5
Electrolysis is a process in which the hydrogen and oxygen in water
can be dissociated by electric current.

24 Mention the various parts of fuel cell K1 CO5

I. Membrane electrode assembly
2. Catalyst
3. Chemistry of a Fuel Cell
4. Hardware.

25 Mention any four types of fuel cells. K1 CO5

I) Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
2) Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell
3) Direct methanol fuel cell
4) Alkaline fuel cell
5) Phosphoric acid fuel cell
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)
S. Question and Answers K Perat
No leve ining
l Co
26 What are the types of battery? K1 CO5
i) Lead- acid battery
ii) Alkaline battery
a) Nickel iron type b) Nickel cadmium type
iii) Zinc air battery

27 What are the components of a lead acid battery? K1 CO5

i) Container ii) Cell covers iii) Plates iv) Electrolyte
v) Separators

28 Explain the principle of lead acid battery. K1 CO5

The lead acid battery is most widely used in automobiles. There are
two rods, one is of pure lead and the other one is of pure lead
peroxide which are in a solution of dilute sulphuric acid. Then an
electric voltage is generated between the rods. The lead peroxide
forms the positive pole and the pure lead forms the negative pole.

29 What do you mean by recharging of battery? K1 CO5

When a battery is discharged and is not capable of delivering any
current it may be recharged. This is done by supplying it with a flow
of current from some external source, such as generator, which
forces current through the battery in a reverse direction. Thus the
plates are restored to their original composition and the battery
becomes recharged.
30 Define battery capacity. K1 CO5
The capacity of a battery has been defined as the amount of
current it can deliver. The amount of current depends upon the
following factors : a) No. of plates b) Area of plates c) Quantity of
the electrolyte
d) Temperature.

31 What are the chemicals used in a battery? K1 CO5

i) Sponge lead ii) Lead oxide iii) Sulphuric acid.
 3.6 PART B – QUESTIONS

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o level ining
Co

1. Associate the performance and emission characteristics of a K2 CO5

vehicle fuelled with Bio-ethanol with that of a neat gasoline
fuelled vehicle.

2. Explain the necessary engine modifications for a CI engine to K2 CO5

be fuelled with natural gas. Support your answer with its
significance and how it affects the functioning of the engine.

3. Discuss any 2 methods of hydrogen production. K2 CO5

4. Explain about anyone of thermochemical production process of K2 CO5

Hydrogen.

5. With an indicative sketch, discuss about the working of a K2 CO5

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cell.

6. Explain LPG is an alternate fuel for petrol engine with diagram. K2 CO5
Also explain its performance and emission characteristics.

7. Explain construction and working principle of hybrid vehicle K2 CO5

with neat sketch.

8. Discuss on the engine modification to be undertaken in the S.I. K2 CO5

engine for Alcohols or Ethanol as alternate Fuel.
9. Summarize the advantages of Hybrid electric vehicle. K2 CO5

10. Explain, the construction and working of the PEM fuel cell with K2 CO5
sketch.

11. Discuss on the merits and demerits of LPG as a motor fuel. K2 CO5
S.N Question and Answers K Perat
o level ining
Co

12. Describe the salient features of using LPG as an alternate fuel K2 CO5

13. Draw and explain the operation of liquefied petroleum gas K2 CO5

system

14. Explain briefly about the history, current uses, process of K2 CO5
utilization and advantages
of biomass as a fuel

15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using alcohol K2 CO5

and hydrogen in CI engines

16. Explain why hydrogen is considered as the most favourable K2 CO5

fuel for future

17. List out the various thermo chemical processes. Explain any K2 CO5
two in detail.

18. Explain the working of phosphoric acid fuel cells with a neat K2 CO5

sketch.

19. With a layout diagram, explain the working features of hybrid K2 CO5

vehicles.
20. Explain how bioethanol is prepared, used in automobile and K2 CO5

consumption in India
 5.7 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES
 

SL.
LINK ACADEMY
NO

1.   https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_ de02/preview NPTEL

https://nptel.ac.in/content/syllabus_pdf/
2.  NPTEL
107106088.pdf

https://www.udemy.com/course/automobile-engineeri
3.  UDEMY
ng-from-zero-to-100-for
everyone/?src=sac&kw=Automobile+engineering
 5.8 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 

Nagpur to Run 450 Buses on Biofuel

India’s public transport is going to be modernized using fuels such as biofuel, Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG) and electricity.Nagpur has already started the process of running 450
buses on biofuel. As many as 90 buses have already been converted.The state road transport
undertakings (SRTUs) are incurring huge costs due to the rising cost of conventional fuels.
India needs to reduce its spending on importing crude oil and hydrocarbons. Accordingly, bus
services incur losses to the tune of ₹600 million (~$8.1 million) each year, which can be
minimized by switching to CNG.

KSRTC’s plan to procure biodiesel, e-buses in limbo

Hybrid and Electric vehicles in India:
1.Mahindra e-Verito
Mahindra is now integrating electric technology in almost every future car. The Verito
sedan is the perfect combination of electric and conventional cars.
2.Mahindra e20 Plus
Mahindra is now integrating electric technology in almost every future car. The Verito
sedan is the perfect combination of electric and conventional cars. It is based on the
concept of green technology. Equipped with 72V 3-Phase AC Induction Motor, the
model can run up to 110 kms in a single charge. E- Verito has 3 variants namely, D2,
D4, and D6 respectively. As of now, the model is available in selected cities only like
Delhi, Chandigarh, Mumbai, etc. It offers power-packed performance hence making it
worthy of every penny. Ex-Showroom Price starting from ₹9.5 lakhs.
3.BMW i8
The BMW i8 is not just an electric-hybrid car. It is a sports car that has an all-electric
range of 37 km, with 0-100 kmph ability in less than 4.5 seconds. Launched in 2018,
BMW i8 is based on the i8 Spyder Concept. It has a twin power turbo inline 3- cylinder
engine as claimed by the company and gives the mileage up to 47.45 kmpl which
boosts the overall performance of the car. Elegant colors like Sophisto Grey Brilliant
Effect, Ionic Silver, Protonic Blue, and Crystal White Pearl Effect are available for all the
variants. The car is selectively available in India. Ex-Showroom Price starting from ₹2.1
crores.
4.Volvo XC90 T8
It is the first hybrid SUV across Indian soils when launched. The most distinguishing
features of the car include individual electronically-adjustable reclining rear seats with
massage & ventilation functions. Furthermore, the car also offers to increase legroom
with footrests. Additionally, the car also has ambient lighting and illuminated storage in
addition to a regal
5.Lexus LS500h
Lexus is ever-present in luxury segments. It recently launched a range of hybrid cars in
various segments. The cars were under ES (mid-size sedan), LS (full-size sedan), RX
(mid-size crossover), and NX (compact SUV) categories. It comes in two variants
namely, Luxury and Ultra Luxury. The model is designed to provide a comfortable and
enthralling ride and is well equipped with Mark Levinson Qli Reference Sound System,
LED turn signals, Retractable Ottoman, Adjustable Power Sunshade. The captivating
Kiriko Ornamentation interior is truly mesmerizing. Ex-Showroom Price starting from
₹1.8 crores
6.Hyundai Kona
It is the first electric SUV to zoom under the Indian skies. It will go on sale in 15 top
cities in India. The Kona has a torque of 325 kms. It takes anywhere between 6-9
hours to be completely charged.
7.Toyota Camry
Toyota is hailed as the pioneer for hybrid technology in cars. The Camry sedan by
Toyota has enjoyed spectacular success elsewhere in the world. It is now poised to
enter the Indian market.
Fuel cell vehicles :

1. 2008–2015 - Honda FCX Clarity[2]

2013–2017 - Hyundai Tucson/ix35 Fuel Cell [3]

2015–2020 - Toyota Mirai

2016 - Honda Clarity Fuel Cell[4][5]

2018 - Hyundai Nexo

2020 - Toyota Mirai II

LPG Vehicles:

The most popular LPG cars include Mahindra Thar (Rs. 12.11 Lakh), Hyundai i20 (Rs.
6.85 Lakh) and Kia Seltos (Rs. 9.95 Lakh). The top brands that produce LPG cars
are Mahindra, Hyundai, Kia, Maruti, Toyota.
 5.9 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS 

Solar-Powered Cars

With the increased interest in renewable and sustainable energy systems, solar-
powered cars have come to the fore. Many automobile companies are working
towards making solar cars, and the technology could well change the future of the
automotive industry.

Solar cars are electric cars that use photovoltaic cells to convert energy from sunlight
into electricity. These cars can store some solar energy in batteries to allow them to
run smoothly at night or in the absence of direct sunlight. If used on a large scale,
solar-powered cars not only help with environmental pollution but also noise
pollution.

Many prototypes of solar-powered cars are currently ın development. Both large and
small automakers are involved in developing hybrid solar cars. According to
some estimates, the solar vehicle market could reach $689 billion by 2027.
Automobile companies are already working on ways to capitalize on the idea with
interim technology, such as solar roof panels for charging batteries and internal
systems.
However, solar cars have a number of serious design and technological limitations.
Some of these are partly tied to aesthetics. Such a car needs to be able to
accommodate several solar panels, and there is limited space for that. That's why,
most solar vehicles developed so far are meant to run in solar car races, and not
meant for regular use.

Sunswift IV is the fastest solar car that exists currently. This car was built by the
students of the University of New South Wales for Solar Racing. The car uses
technology that is similar to and a combination of the ones used in bicycles and
aerospace, and the automotive industries.

However, so far, none of the vehicles have been designed in a way that they
can 100% rely on solar energy alone. In addition, they use designs that would not
be practical in real life. For example, the roofs are often flat and massive, to
accommodate more solar panels; to save on energy use, they're built with ultralight
materials that would not survive even a minor crash, and they can only seat one
person and no luggage.

How do solar-powered cars work?

A solar panel allows photons, or particles of light, to excite electrons, generating a

flow of electricity. Solar panels are made up of many, smaller units called
photovoltaic cells that are linked together.
Each photovoltaic cell is essentially a sandwich of two slices of semi-conducting material,
such as silicon. The silicon is mixed with other materials, usually, phosphorus and boron,
to give each "slice" a positive or negative electrical charge. This creates an electric field
at the junction between the two layers.

When a photon of sunlight knocks an electron free, the electric field will push that
electron out of the silicon junction. Metal conductive plates on the sides of the cell collect
the electrons and transfer them to wires. At that point, the electrons can flow like any
other source of electricity.

There are some of the advantages of using solar cars:

•Saves money on fuel

•Is sustainable and environment-friendly

•No additional costs except battery replacement

•Does not cause noise pollution or air pollution

Battery Management System (BMS)

How to design a battery management system?

Infineon integrated circuits and designs help you to layout your Battery Management
System. Careful design considerations on charging and discharging processes on battery
protection and cell monitoring will support you throughout your design.
Infineon‘s solutions and design resources for a battery management system, help you to
overcome your design challenges and support your success in developing more efficient,
longer-lasting and more reliable battery-powered applications. 
From engineers to engineers, our tools will support you every phase of your design, from
comparing the different products to simulations, and of course ready to use reference
designs. Depending on your application constraints you can check different system
architectures for battery management systems and find the supporting product families
of Infineon for

•Multi-module, high-voltage batteries

•Single module, medium voltage batteries (more than 12 cells, above 60V)

•Single-module, low voltage batteries (up to 12 cells or more, below 60V)

 Assessment Schedule ( Proposed Date & Actual Date)
Unit test 1 :
First Internal assessment : 16-09-2022
Unit test II :
Second Internal assessment : 2-11-2022
Model Exam : 1-12-2022
 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Jain K.K. and Asthana .R.B, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill
Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.

2. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering”, Vol 1 & 2, Seventh Edition, Standard

Publishers, New Delhi, 13th Edition 2014..

REFERENCES:

1. Ganesan V. “Internal Combustion Engines”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.

2. Heinz Heisler, “Advanced Engine Technology,” SAE International Publications

USA, 1998.

3. Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics,” Second Edition, East-West Press, 1999.

4. Martin W, Stockel and Martin T Stockle , “Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals,”

The Good heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978. 5. Newton ,Steeds and Garet,
“Motor Vehicles”, Butterworth Publishers,1989.
 Mini Project suggestions

 Extraction of Biodiesel from refined vegetable oil

 Estimation of Two wheeler mileage using Alcohol and petrol

blends

Performance comparison of LPG and Petrol fuelled vehicle

Extraction of biodiesel from chicken waste/fish waste

Compact hydrogen generator to liberate hydrogen

Design and Fabrication of oscillating heat pipes used for

Battery cooling in Electric Vehicle.

 Thank you

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