Lecture 1 On-Site Waste Treatment

On-Site Wastewater Treatment
Systems
Wangai Ndirangu, Jomo Kenyatta University,
2019
Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

What are Decentralized
Wastewater Systems?
Various types of onsite Systems,

 Septic Systems,
 Individual Systems,
 Cluster Systems,
 Package Plants
 Large Capacity Septic systems

What do we mean by
“conventional” and “on-site”?
“Conventional” “On-site” means:
means here:  Not connected to sewer
 Currently widely  Treated “at the site where people live”
known and used  but this is not always strictly true, e.g.
septic tanks eventually need removal of
 Accepted by faecal sludge to a centralised treatment
decision makers plant
as an optimum  “Decentralised” is often used interchangeably
option with “on-site”
 The opposite of on-site is called:
 off-site; or
 centralised systems; or
 sewer-based sanitation

Reasons for having on-site sanitation
systems rather than a sewer system
 To save construction and maintenance costs

 Because people cannot afford a connection to a sewer
 Many authorities cannot yet afford construction and
maintenance of an expensive sewer system and a wastewater
treatment plant
 Even in the west municipalities face huge costs to
rehabilitate aging sewer infrastructure older than 150 years
(e.g. in Germany, UK)
 Water is scarce or not reliably available; however, not all on-site
sanitation systems have low water use (e.g. septic tanks)
 To serve remote locations (long distances)
 Because housing is only temporary or illegal (slums, refugee
camps)
 Because it is more flexible with respect to population growth and
decline

Conventional low-cost excreta management
methods (in approximate order of increasing
system cost)
Excreta disposal method Needs faecal Can accept Human dignity Public health
sludge mgmt.? greywater? risk
Open defecation No No Very low Very high

Flying toilet No No Very low Very high
Bucket latrine Yes No Low High
Simple pit latrine Yes No Can be OK Medium
Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine Yes No OK Low
Urine-diversion dehydrating toilet* No but faecal No OK Low

matter collection
Pour-flush latrine with pit, aqua privy Yes No OK Low
Water-flush or pour-flush toilet with Yes Yes OK Low

septic tank
Water-flush toilet with holding tanks / Yes Yes OK Low
cess pits

On-site sanitation is quite easy if…
…Population density is …or if money is not an issue!

low (e.g. rural areas)
But big problems for:

High population density and low Special focus :
income (peri-urban areas, slums) low-cost on-
site sanitation
in urban areas
My rules of thumb:
Low density: < 100 people/ha
Peri-urban areas: 100 – 240 people/ha
Slums: > 800 people/ha
1 ha = 10,000 m2 = 0.01 km2 (1 soccer field = 0.7 ha)

Significant National
Issue
• >85% of homes use onsite

treatment
• Majority new construction
• Growing pop in suburban areas
• Very high failure
• Major threat health and
environmental pollution

On-Site Waste Disposal Systems

Major Components
Septic tank
Soil Absorption
Field
Typical treatment train
components
 Septic tank(s)
 Single or multiple compartments
 Watertight; sized for peak flows
 Equipped with effluent screen
or appropriate outlet
arrangment to protect SWIS
 Subsurface wastewater distribution
 Trenches filled with gravel
 Gravelless trenches (chambers)
 Pressure-dosed systems
 Alternative systems

Septic Tank – Components


Septic Tank Function
 3000 litres to 6000 lit water

tight tank
 Removal of large solids
 Limited organic
decomposition (30%)
 Protect absorption field from
clogging

On-Site Septic Tank-Soil Absorption Systems
 Receives sewage from household

 Two compartments: provide residence time & prevent short-circuiting
 first compartment for solids sedimentation
 second compartment for additional solids settling and effluent discharge
 Absorption System: Distribution lines and drainfield
 Septic tank effluent flows through perforated pipes located 600-900mm below the
land surface in a trenches filled with gravel, preferably in the unsaturated (vadose)
zone.
 Effluent discharges from perforated pipes into trench gravel and then into
unsaturated soil, where it is biologically treated aerobically.

Typical problems with septic tanks
 Need regular emptying (typically every 3-5years,

depending on size and number of users)
 Faecal sludge is overflowing together with the
effluent
 Capacity for faecal sludge treatment lacking
(resulting in illegal dumping anywhere in the
environment)
 Relatively expensive (not affordable for the poor)
 Need access roads for emptying trucks

Typical problems with septic tanks
 Effluent quality low and often not enough space for

sustainable soil infiltration
 Tank is undersized (little anaerobic treatment
occurring)
 Population density has become too high 
capacity of soil to absorb and treat liquid effluent
is exceeded
 Pollution of groundwater is possible (effluent soak-
aways most common)
 Tank may be leaking (faecal sludge is leaking out);
maintenance is neglected

Absorption Field Function
 Distributes wastewater
from septic tank into
soil
 Pipe and gravel
 Numerous other
technologies

Soil Function
 Transmits wastewater from

absorption field to ground
or surface water
 The treatment media
 Natural processes purify
wastewater

150’ MAX.

Lateral lines following the slope contour
150’ max. length

Cross-Section of Absorption Trench
Cool-Warm Season Grass Mixture
Perforated Pipe

Successful OWTS Treatment
Siting
 Site Evaluation
 System Location
Design
 System Sizing
 System Selection and Design
Installation
Operation/Maintenance
Common Causes of Failure
Unsuitable soils
 Slow or fast percolation rates
 Seasonal water tables
 Shallow rock
 Water restrictive soil horizons

Common Causes of Failure
 Hydraulic overloading (too much

water)
 Solids migration to drain field
 Failure to pump tank on
schedule
 Baffle failure
 Root intrusion into sewer lines
 Traffic damage to drain field
 Garbage disposal overuse

Factors Affecting OWTS
Performance
 Soil system performs multiple tasks in typical

OWTS
 Treat the water to remove contaminants
 Dispose of treated water
 Factors that affect these tasks
Soil Wastewater Characteristics
Loading Rates Users’ Lifestyle
O& M Temperature
Rainfall Surrounding Development

Soil
Texture
Structure
Depth
Compaction
Landscape Position

Loading Rates
Hydraulic overloading is one of leading

causes of OWTS failure
Design flow typically various
 180 litres/person (common assumption in
western countries design)
Loading rates determined by type of soil

Users’ Lifestyle
 Low-flow devices (toilet, faucets, shower heads,

etc.)
 Rainfall collection
 Use of garbage disposals
 Excessive use of FOG (fat Oil & Grease and
 Laundry habits
 Time in Residence

Wastewater Characteristics
 BOD5 (above 230mg/L will

reduce life of system and level of
treatment)
 Biologically active chemicals
(bleach, antibiotics, etc.)
 FOG
 Other chemicals (Cleaners,
solvents, degreasers, etc.)

Residential wastewater
sources/flows
Other domestic
Leaks 2.3%
13.7% 1.6 gpcd
Toilet
9.5 gpcd
26.7%
18.5 gpcd
Faucets
15.7%
10.9 gpcd
Dishwasher
1.4%
Shower
1.0 gpcd
16.8%
11.6 gpcd
Clothes washer Bath
21.7% 1.7%
15.0 gpcd 1.2 gpcd
Total gpcd = 69.3

Residential wastewater characterization:
flow and strength analyses
 Estimate:
 average daily flows
(or use meter info)
 hourly and
instantaneous peak
flows
 wastewater strength
(composition) using
similar-facility
comparisons or
sampling info

Wastewater strength can vary considerably

OWTS pollutants of
concern

Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
 Pump Tanks every 3 to 5 years (plan on every 4)

 Actual time period should depend on active monitoring
of system
 Conduct at least biannual monitoring of tank
levels, baffles, and drainfield
 This is the minimum, more frequent monitoring
recommended (required for advanced systems)
 Pump tank when sludge layer thickness exceeds 25%
of working liquid capacity of the tank, or if scum layer
is within three inches of bottom of outlet baffle

Temperature and Rainfall
 Temperature
 Affects flow and mixing in septic tank
 Soil treatment relies on biological activity
 Cold slows down biological processes
 50% loss in activity for 10ºC drop in temp
 Activity effectively stops at 2 ºC
 Rainfall
 Additional hydraulic load on soil
 Reduction in vertical separation
 Benefit-dilute nitrates, however also increase
transport rate
Who Regulates OSWTS?
 Public Health officers embedded in medical

sector

If it is regulated… So what is
the problem
 Lack of clear performance requirements

 Few O&M or management programs
 Watershed/regional impacts often ignored
 Poor public outreach and education
 Little coordination with planning, zoning, water resource, and other
agencies and stakeholders
 Weak enforcement
 Outdated regulations / low uptake of technology
 Corruption and ethical practices

What is Needed?
Improved Management, including:

 Improved owner awareness
 Certified practitioners
 Appropriate application of technology to the receiving
environment
 Routine O&M
 Effective and affordable options for difficult sites
 Consideration of all options (decentralized and
centralized)

References . . .

03/06/2015

Extending Life of On-Site System

Reduce Water Use
Per Capita Water Use
Leaks, 14 gpd
Toilet, 19 gpd
Faucets, 16 gpd
Shower, 17 gpd
Dishwasher, 1
gpd Laundry, 22 gpd
Laundry, 22
Graywater Separation
60-65% of total wastewater

 Bathtub or shower
 Laundry
 Toilet, kitchen and dishwasher not included
Graywater reuse in the future?

Reduce Contaminant Loads in
WW
 Use recommended amounts of household cleaners
 Do not
 Use “every flush” toilet bowl cleaners
 Flush unwanted medicines down toilet
 Drain chlorine-treated water into on-site
systems
 Minimize use of garbage disposal

Maintenance
 Often owner responsibility

 Lack of understanding
 Pump septic tank

 Every 3-5 years
 Minimizes addition of solids to drainfield and soil clogging
 Inspections
 Periodic inspections

What’s in the Future?

Cluster or Community System
 Same total area as

individual on-site systems
 Septic tank at every house
 Best soils for on-site
system
 Advanced treatment
 Nitrogen and
phosphorus removal

Cluster or Community System
 Contract maintenance
 Public?
 Private?
 Drainfield can be green space
 Wastewater concentrated in
small area
 Greater potential for
groundwater contamination?

Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Removal
Technology is currently available

 Not cheap
 Additional maintenance required
May be required in sensitive environments

 P removal in shallow soils over fractured rock
near water bodies
 N removal may be more widespread

Reducing Hydraulic Loading
 Equipment Adjustments
 Low flow toilets
 Water-saving showerheads
 Front-loading washing machines
 Lifestyle Adjustments
 Shower vs. bath
 Distribute laundry loads throughout week
 Distribute bathing morning & evening
 Wastewater reuse

Alternative Wastewater
Treatment
 Stabilization Ponds/lagoons
 Wetlands
 Composting Toilets
 Mounds, at-grades, intermittent or recirculating filter
 Vegetated submerged beds
 Aerobic units
 Separation of Waste Streams

ET/Absorption Trench System
 Used when soil percolation rate is too slow

for ordinary subsurface absorption trenches
 Uses evapotranspiration (ET) of grasses
plus soil absorption to dispose wastewater

Lagoons
 Used when soil percolation rate is too slow

for soil absorption systems
 Require 2 ½ acre minimum lot size
 Fencing required around the lagoon
 Size based on house size, and rainfall and
evaporation of geographic zone
 Must retain all wastewater (no overflow)

Typical Lagoon Installation
-4-ft high fence required
- lagoon size based on house size and local rainfall
4 ft
3
1 1 ft min.
7 ft
5 ft max.
Concrete Pad

Stabilization Ponds or
Lagoons
 Many different pond designs have been used to treat sewage:

 facultative ponds: upper, aerobic zone and a lower anaerobic
zone.
 Aerobic heterotrophics and algae proliferate in the upper zone.
 Biomass from upper zone settles into the anaerobic, bottom
zone.
 Bottom solids digested by anaerobic bacteria.

Facultative Oxidation (Waste
Stabilization) Pond

Constructed Wetlands
 Surface flow (SF) wetlands reduce enteric microbes by ~90%

 Subsurface flow (SSF) wetlands reduce enteric microbes by
~99%
 Greater reduction in SSF may be due to greater biological
activity in wetland bed media (porous gravel) and longer
retention times
 Multiple wetlands in series incrementally increase microbial
reductions, with 90-99% reduction per wetland cell.

Alternating Drainfields
Typical Diversion
Valve

Intermittent Sand Filter
INTERMITTENT
SEPTIC TANK
SAND
FILTER
PUMP CHAMBER
DRAINFIELD

Glendon Biofilter

Sand Lined Trench Systems

Drip Systems
FINISH GRADE
BACKFILLED TRENCH MINIMUM 6 INCHES DEPTH

(FREE OF DEBRIS)
DRIPLINE
NATIVE UNDISTURBED SOIL
DRIPLINE TRENCHING
INSTALLATION

Gravelless Drainfields
Ground surface
Distribution Soil Backfill

pipe Geotextile
18 - 24 IN. Corrugated
pipe
24 IN.

Infiltration
Chambers
• Polyethylene infiltration
chamber has 100% open
volume vs. 50% for gravel-
filled absorption trench
• Corrugated design gives
strength to support ground
traffic over its 600mm width

Mound Systems
Cap Fill Material
Topsoil
Plowed Area
Septic Tank Pump Chamber Mound

Cap Approved SyntheticFilter
Fabric or Geotextile
Topsoil
Fill Material
Plowed Area
Highly or Excessively Permeable Soil
Water Table or Creviced Bedrock

Pressure Distribution Systems

Pump Chamber and Surface Spray Heads
Application System
Access Hatch
Pump
Pump Control &
Jomo Kenyatta University
Alarm Floats
ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III
Holding Tank System
Warning Light and
Audible Alarm
Access Riser with secured Pumping Access Port with
gas tight lid sloped concrete pad
Inlet
from
structure
Inlet
pipe
Reserve Storage Volume
Normal Operating Volume

Advanced Treatment Systems
 Aerobic treatment to lower BOD and

suspended solids
 Overcomes soil and site limitations
 Should extend life of system
 Reduced solids to clog soil pores
 Additional maintenance required
 Additional expense

Aerobic Systems
 Used to treat septic tank effluent where

subsurface disposal is not possible
 Bubbling air through effluent supports
aerobic bacteria for further digestion
 Exposure to oxygen kills most pathogens
 Chlorination allows surface land
application of wastewater through
sprinklers

Onsite Aerobic Treatment System
Onsite aerobic treatment systems treat septic tank effluent

further by aerobic digestion, chlorination to kill
pathogens, and surface application through a spray head
sprinkler system.

(Septic Tank)
EFFLUENT FROM
SEPTIC TANK WASTEWATER
TO CHLORINATOR
& SPRINKLERS
DIFFUSER
Typical Aeration Chamber of Aerobic Treatment System

Lecture 1 On-Site Waste Treatment

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On-Site Wastewater Treatment

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Various types of onsite Systems,

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 To save construction and maintenance costs

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Open defecation No No Very low Very high

Urine-diversion dehydrating toilet* No but faecal No OK Low

Pour-flush latrine with pit, aqua privy Yes No OK Low

Water-flush or pour-flush toilet with Yes Yes OK Low

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

…Population density is …or if money is not an issue!

But big problems for:

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

• >85% of homes use onsite

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 3000 litres to 6000 lit water

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Receives sewage from household

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Need regular emptying (typically every 3-5years,

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Effluent quality low and often not enough space for

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Transmits wastewater from

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

150’ max. length

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Slow or fast percolation rates

 Seasonal water tables

 Water restrictive soil horizons

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Hydraulic overloading (too much

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Soil system performs multiple tasks in typical

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Hydraulic overloading is one of leading

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Low-flow devices (toilet, faucets, shower heads,

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 BOD5 (above 230mg/L will

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Pump Tanks every 3 to 5 years (plan on every 4)

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Public Health officers embedded in medical

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

 Lack of clear performance requirements

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Improved Management, including:

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III

Jomo Kenyatta University ECE 2504: Public Health Engineering III