Chemistry for Technology

Solid Liquid And Gases

 Three states of matter
At room temperature all substances exist in one of
three physical states.

Solid Liquid Gas

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 The particle model
The difference between solids, liquids and gases
can be explained by the particle model.
 All substances are made up of
particles.
 The particles are attracted to
each other. Some particles are
attracted strongly to each other
and others weakly.
 The particles move around. They
are described as having kinetic
energy.
 The kinetic energy of the particles
increases with temperature.
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Particles in action

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 What are the properties of solids?
A solid:
 has a high density as the particles are very close
together
 cannot be compressed as there is very little empty
space between particles
 has a fixed shape as the particles are
held together tightly
 cannot diffuse as the particles are not
able to move
 does not exert any
pressure as the particles
cannot move around.
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 What are the properties of liquids?
A liquid:
 has a fairly high density as the particles are close
together
 cannot be compressed as there is very little empty
space between particles
 takes up the shape of its container as the
particles can move
 can diffuse as the particles are able to
change places
 can exert some pressure
as the particles are able to
move and hit the sides of the container.
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 What are the properties of gases
A gas:
 has a low density as the particles are far apart
 can be compressed as there is space between
particles
 has no fixed shape as the particles
move about rapidly in all directions

 can diffuse as the particles are able

to move in all directions
 can exert a lot of pressure as the particles are able to
move in all directions and hit the sides of the
container.
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Solids, liquids and gases: which one?

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 Glossary
 Diffusion – The process in which particles randomly
move and spread out in gases and liquids.
 Gas – The state of matter in which particles can freely
move, and in which substances have no fixed volume
or shape.
 Liquid – The state of matter in which particles are
close together but free to move, and in which
substances have a fixed volume and assume the
shape of their container.
 Pressure – The force produced when particles move
against a surface.
 Solid – The state of matter in which particles are close
together and cannot move, and in which substances
have a fixed shape and volume.
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Multiple-choice quiz

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 11

Gas Law
 Properties of Gases
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You can predict the behavior of gases based on

the following properties:

Pressure
Volume
Amount (moles)
Temperature
Lets review each of these briefly…
 Pressure
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Pressure is defined as the force the gas

exerts on a given area of the container in
which it is contained. The SI unit for
pressure is the Pascal, Pa.
• If you’ve ever inflated a tire, you’ve
probably made a pressure
measurement in pounds (force) per
square inch (area).
 Volume
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Volume is the three-dimensional space inside

the container holding the gas. The SI unit for
volume is the cubic meter, m3. A more common
and convenient unit is the liter, L.

Think of a 2-liter bottle of soda to get

an idea of how big a liter is.
 Amount (moles)
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Amount of substance is tricky. As we’ve already

learned, the SI unit for amount of substance is the
mole, mol. Since we can’t count molecules, we can
convert measured mass (in kg) to the number of
moles, n, using the molecular or formula weight of
the gas.

By definition, one mole of a substance contains

approximately 6.022 x 1023 particles of the substance. You
can understand why we use mass and moles!
 Temperature
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Temperature is the measurement of heat…or how

fast the particles are moving. Gases, at room
temperature, have a lower boiling point than things
that are liquid or solid at the same temperature.
Remember: Not all substance freeze, melt or
evaporate at the same temperature.

Water will freeze at zero degrees

Celsius. However Alcohol will not
freeze at this temperature.
 Boyle’s Law
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This law is named for Charles Boyle, who studied

the relationship between pressure, p, and
volume, V, in the mid-1600s.
Boyle determined that for the same amount of a
gas at constant temperature, results in an inverse
relationship:
when one goes up, the other
comes down.

volume
pressure
PV = k
 What does Boyle’s Law mean?
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 Suppose you have a cylinder with a piston in the top

so you can change the volume.

 Thecylinder has a gauge to measure pressure, is

contained so the amount of gas is constant, and can
be maintained at a constant temperature.

A decrease in volume will result in increased pressure.

 Boyle’s Law at Work…
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Doubling the pressure reduces the volume by half.

Conversely, when the volume doubles, the pressure
decreases by half.
 Charles’ Law
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This law is named for Jacques Charles, who
studied the relationship volume, V, and
temperature, T, around the turn of the 19th
century.

This defines a direct relationship:

With the same amount of gas he found that as
the volume increases the temperature also
increases. If the temperature decreases than
the volume also decreases.

temperature
volume
 What does Charles’ Law mean?
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Suppose you have that same cylinder with a piston

in the top allowing volume to change, and a
heating/cooling element allowing for changing
temperature.

The force on the piston head is constant to

maintain pressure, and the cylinder is contained
so the amount of gas is constant.

An increase in temperature results in increased

volume.
 Charles’ Law at Work…
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As the temperature increases, the volume increases.

Conversely, when the temperature decreases, volume
decreases.
 Ideal Gas law
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This law is a generalization containing both Boyle's law and Charles's law

As special cases and states that for a specified quantity of gas, the
product of the volume, V, and pressure, P, is proportional to the absolute
temperature T

The ideal gas law can be derived from the kinetic theory of gases and
relies on the assumptions that

 The gas consists of a large number of molecules, which are in

random motion and obey Newton's laws of motion
 The volume of the molecules is negligibly small compared to the
volume occupied by the gas
 No forces act on the molecules except during elastic collisions of
negligible duration.
Although no gas has these properties, the behaviour of
real gases is described quite closely by the ideal gas
law at sufficiently high temperatures and low
pressures
when relatively large distances between molecules
and their high speeds overcome any interaction.
 A gas does not obey the equation when conditions are
such as the gas or any of the component gases in a
mixture is near its condensation point.
In reality, there are no gases that fit this definition
perfectly.
We assume that gases are ideal to simplify our
calculations.

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 The Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT
P = Pressure (in kPa) V = Volume (in L)
T = Temperature (in K) n = moles

R = 8.31 kPa • L
K • mol
Recall, From Boyle’s Law:
P1V1 = P2V2 or PV = constant
From combined gas law:
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 or PV/T = constant

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 Sample problems
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How many moles of H2 is in a 3.1 L sample of H2 measured at

300 kPa and 20°C?
P = 300 kPa, V = 3.1 L, T = 293 K

PV = nRT

(300 kPa)(3.1 L) = n (8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(293 K)

(300 kPa)(3.1 L)
= n = 0.38 mol
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(293 K)
 Ideal Gas Law Questions
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1. How many moles of CO2(g) is in a 5.6 L sample of CO2

measured at STP?
2. a) Calculate the volume of 4.50 mol of SO2(g) measured at
STP. b) What volume would this occupy at 25°C and 150
kPa? (solve this 2 ways)
3. How many grams of Cl2(g) can be stored in a 10.0 L
container at 1000 kPa and 30°C?
4. At 150°C and 100 kPa, 1.00 L of a compound has a mass
of 2.506 g. Calculate its molar mass.
5. 98 mL of an unknown gas weighs 0.087 g at SATP.
Calculate the molar mass of the gas. Can you determine
the identity of this unknown gas?
1. Moles of CO2 is in a 5.6 L at STP?

P=101.325 kPa, V=5.6 L, T=298 K PV = nRT

(101.3 kPa)(5.6 L) = n (8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(298K)

(101.325 kPa)(5.6 L)
= n = 0.23 mol
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(298 K)

2. a) Volume of 4.50 mol of SO2 at STP.

P= 101.3 kPa, n= 4.50 mol, T= 298 K PV=nRT

(101.3 kPa)(V)=(4.5 mol)(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(298 K)

(4.50 mol)(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(298 K)

V= = 100.8 L
(101.3 kPa)

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2. b) Volume at 25°C and 150 kPa (two ways)?
Given: P = 150 kPa, n = 4.50 mol, T = 298 K
(4.50 mol)(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(298 K)
V= = 74.3 L
(150 kPa)
From a): P = 101.3 kPa, V = 100.8 L, T = 273 K
Now P = 150 kPa, V = ?, T = 298 K
P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
(101.3 kPa)(100 L) (150 kPa)(V2)
=
(273 K) (298 K)

(101.3 kPa)(100.8 L)(298 K)

(V2) = = 74.3 L
(273 K)(150 kPa)
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3. How many grams of Cl2(g) can be stored in a
10.0 L container at 1000 kPa and 30°C?
PV = nRT P= 1000 kPa,30 V= 10.0 L, T= 303 K
(1000 kPa)(10.0 L) = n = 3.97 mol
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(303 K) 3.97 mol x 70.9
g/mol = 282 g
4. At 150°C and 100 kPa, 1.00 L of a compound
has a mass of 2.506 g. Calculate molar mass.
PV = nRT P= 100 kPa, V= 1.00 L, T= 423 K
(100 kPa)(1.00 L) = n = 0.02845 mol
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(423 K)
g/mol = 2.506 g / 0.02845 mol = 88.1 g/mol
5. 98 mL of an unknown gas weighs 0.081 g at
SATP. Calculate the 31molar mass.

PV = nRT P= 100 kPa, V= 0.098 L, T= 298 K

(100 kPa)(0.098 L) = n = 0.00396 mol
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(298 K)
g/mol = 0.081 g / 0.00396 mol = 20.47 g/mol
It’s probably neon
(neon has a molar mass of 20.18 g/mol)
Chemistry for Technology

Acids bases and salts

 General properties
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ACIDS BASES
Taste sour Taste bitter
blue to red red to blue
Turn litmus Turn litmus
React with active metals Feel soapy or slippery
– Fe, Zn (react with fats to
make soap)
React with acids

React with bases

 Definitions for Acids and Bases
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Acids – produce H+
Arrehenius
Bases - produce OH-
only in water
Acids – donate H+
Bronsted-Lowry
Bases – accept H+
any solvent

Acids – accept e- pair

Lewis Bases – donate e- pair
used in organic chemistry,
wider range of substances
What Happens When an Acid Dissolves in Water?

Water acts as a
Brønsted–Lowry base
and abstracts a proton
(H+) from the acid.

As a result, the

conjugate base of the
acid and a hydronium ion
are formed.

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 Formula Writing of Acids
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Write the H+1 first, then figure out what the negative ion
is based on the name.

Cancel out the charges to write the formula.

Don’t forget the (aq) after it…

 Carbonic acid: H+1 and CO3-2 = H2CO3 (aq)
 Chlorous acid: H+1 and ClO2-1 = HClO2 (aq)
 Hydrobromic acid: H+1 and Br-1 = HBr (aq)
 Hydrocloric acid: H+1 and Cl-1 = HCl (aq)
 Formula Writing of Bases
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Formula writing of bases is the same as for any ionic

formula writing.
The charges of the ions have to cancel out.

 Calcium hydroxide = Ca+2 and OH-1 = Ca(OH)2 (aq)

 Potassium hydroxide = K+1 and OH-1 = KOH (aq)
 Lead (II) hydroxide = Pb+2 and OH-1 = Pb(OH)2 (aq)

 Lead (IV) hydroxide = Pb+4 and OH-1 = Pb(OH)4 (aq)

 Lithium hydroxide =
 Copper (II) hydroxide =
Acid and Base Strength
Strong acids are
completely dissociated in
water.
 Their conjugate bases are
quite weak.
Weak acids only
dissociate partially in
water.
 Their conjugate bases are
weak bases.

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 Acid and Base Strength
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Acids that dissociate (ionize) to a large extent are

strong electrolytes and Strong Acids.

a Acids that dissociate only to small extent are

Weak Acids and weak electrolytes
Bases can be strong or weak depending on the extent
to which they dissociate and produce OH– ions in
solution.
Most metal Oxide and metal hydroxides are strong
Strong Bases.
 Ammonia, NH , is a weak electrolyte and Weak Base.
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Common Strong Acids & their Anions
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Common Weak Acids & their Anions
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 Type of Acids And Bases
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Acid can be classified according to the number of H+

ions can be produce by one molecule of acid
 Monobasic Acids - HCl , CH3CH2COOH
 Bibasic Acids - H2SO4
 Tribasic Acids - H3PO4

Base can be classified according to the number of H+

ions can be accept by one molecule of base
 Monoacidic Bases - NaOH , KOH
 Biacidic Bases – Ca(OH)2
 Chemical Properties of Acids
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 With metals
 Metals above copper in the reactivity series will react with acids, giving off
hydrogen gas, forming a salt.


 Mg + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

(s)

 With bases (metal oxides and hydroxides)

 The base dissolves in the acid and neutralizes it. A salt is formed.

 H SO
2 4(aq) + CuO(s)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

 With metal carbonates

 With metal carbonates, effervescence occurs, salt, water and carbon
dioxide gas is produced.

 2HCl
(aq) + CaCO3(s)  CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
 Chemical Properties of Bases
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 Alkali's are used to produce the insoluble hydroxide

precipitates of many metal ions from their soluble salt
solutions.

 2NaOH + CuSO4(aq) ==> Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

(aq)

ionically: Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==>  Cu(OH)2(s) 

 This reaction can be used as a simple test to help identify
certain metal ions.
 Preparation of Acids
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When react with Water

 H2SO3(aq)

 Acid which react with Water to give acid are known as acid
anhydrides.

Weak acids are displaced from their salts by strong acids

Strong acid are displace from their salts by heating them

with less volatile strong acids.
 HNO3 Can be prepared by heating NaNO3 with concentrated
H2SO4
 Preparation of Bases
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Oxide preparation
 By burning or heating metals in air or oxygen
 By thermal decomposition of hydroxide, Carbonates,
and nitrates.

Hydroxide preparation
 From the reaction between a metal or a metal oxide
and water. (Limited to sodium, potassium, calcium and
their oxides)
 By addition of an Alkali to the solution of salt
PERIODIC TRENDS IN OXIDES
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 SALTS
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 When H+ ion of an acid is replaced by a metal ion, a salt is

produced

 H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ====== Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

 Here sodium sulphate (Na SO ) is the salt formed.

2 4

 Salts are ionic compounds.

 Note: Ammonia (NH ) is an unusual base - it does not contain a

3
metal. It forms ammonium salts, containing the ammonium ion,
NH4+.

 NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq)  NH4NO3(aq) (ammonium nitrate)

 Types of Salts

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Normal Salts / Neutral Salts

Normal salts are formed when all the replaceable
hydrogen ions in the acid have been completely
replaced by metallic ions or ammonium ions

 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

 H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Normal salts are neutral to litmus paper.

Acid salts:

 Acid salts are formed when replaceable hydrogen ions in acids are only
partially replaced by a metal.

 Acid salts are produced only by acids containing more then one replaceable
hydrogen ion.

 Therefore an acid with two replaceable ions (H SO ) will form only one acid
2 4
salt, while acid with three replaceable hydrogen ions (H 3PO4) will form two
different acid salts.
 H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq)  KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 H3PO4(aq) + NaOH  NaH2PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 H3PO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2HPO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

 An acid salt will turn blue litmus red. In the presence of excess metallic ions
an acid salt will be converted into a normal salt as its replaceable hydrogen
ions become replaced.
 KHSO4(aq) + KOH ================ K2SO4(aq) + H+O(l)

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Basic Salts:

Basic salts contain the hydroxide ion, OH-.

They are formed when there is insufficient supply of acid for

the complete neutralization of the base.

A basic salt will turn red litmus blue and will react with excess
acid to form normal salt.

 Zn(OH)2(s) + HCl(aq)  Zn(OH)Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

 Zn(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

 Mg(OH)2(s) + HNO3(aq)  Mg(OH)NO3(aq) + H2O(l)

 Mg(OH)NO3(aq) + HNO3(aq)  Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

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 USES OF SALTS
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SALT USE
Ammonium Chloride In torch batteries

Ammonium Nitrate In fertilizers

Calcium Chloride As drying agent

Iron Sulphate In Iron tablets

Magnesium Sulphate In medicine

Potassium Nitrate In gunpowder etc.

Silver Bromide In photography

Sodium Chloride Making NaOH

Sodium Stearate In making soap.