ELEC 4302/7311

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION:

PROTECTION SETTINGS

BY MOHD MOIZUDDIN

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 Contents

 Introduction
 Functions of Equipment Protection

 Functions of Protective Relays

 Required Information for Protective Setting

 Protection Settings Process

 Functional Elements of Protective Relays

 Operating Characteristics of Protective Relays

 Overcurrent and Directional Protection Elements

 Distance Protection Function

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PROTECTION SETTINGS:
INTRODUCTION
 A power system is composed of a number of sections
(equipment) such as generator, transformer, bus bar and
transmission line.
 These sections are protected by protective relaying systems
comprising of instrument transformers (ITs), protective
relays, circuit breakers (CBs) and communication
equipment.
 In case of a fault occurring on a section, its associated
protective relays should detect the fault and issue trip
signals to open their associated CBs to isolate the faulted
section from the rest of the power system, in order to avoid
further damage to the power system.
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 Protection Settings: Introduction
Below Fig. 1 is an typical example of power system sections with their
protection systems. Where:
G1 is a generator. T1 is a transformer. B1,...,B5 are bus bars. L45 is
a transmission line (TL).
RG is a generator protective relay. RT is a transformer protective
relay. RB is a bus protective relay. RL-4,...,RL-9 are TL protective
relays. C1,..., C9 are CBs.

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Fig. 1 Protection of power system sections
PROTECTION SETTINGS:
INTRODUCTION
 Maximum fault clearance times are usually specified by the
regulating bodies and network service providers.
 The clearing times are given for local and remote CBs and
depend on the voltage level and are determined primarily to
meet stability requirements and minimize plant damage.
 The maximum clearance times of the backup protection are
also specified.
 e.g. the clearing times for faults on the lines specified by one
network service provider in Australia are presented in Table I
(next slide).

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TABLE I: FAULT CLEARANCE TIMES
Voltage CB operate correctly CB fail [ms]
level [kV] [ms]
Local Remote Local Remote

500 80 100 175 175

330 100 120 250 250
275 100 120 250 250
220 120 140 430 430
132 120 160 430 430
110 120 160 430 430
66 120 160 430 430
≤ 33 1160 - 1500 - 6
FUNCTIONS OF EQUIPMENT
PROTECTION
Protection schemes are generally divided into equipment protection
and system protection.
The main function of equipment protection is to selectively and
rapidly detect and disconnect a fault on the protected circuit to:
 ensure optimal power quality to customers;
 minimize damage to the primary plant;
 prevent damage to healthy equipment that conducts fault current
during faults;
 restore supply over the remaining healthy network;
 sustain stability and integrity of the power system;
 limit safety hazard to the power utility personnel and the public.

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FUNCTIONS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
 The protection functions are considered adequate when the
protection relays perform correctly in terms of:

 Dependability: The probability of not having a failure to operate

under given conditions for a given time interval.

 Security: The probability of not having an unwanted operation

under given conditions for a given time interval.

 Speed of Operation: The clearance of faults in the shortest time is

a fundamental requirement (transmission system), but this must be
seen in conjunction with the associated cost implications and the
performance requirements for a specific application.
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…FUNCTIONS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
 Selectivity (Discrimination):
The ability to detect a fault within a specified zone of a network
and to trip the appropriate CB(s) to clear this fault with a minimum
disturbance to the rest of that network.

 Single failure criterion:

A protection design criterion whereby a protection system must not
fail to operate even after one component fails to operate.
With respect to the protection relay, the single failure criterion
caters primarily for a failed or defective relay, and not a failure to
operate as a result of a performance deficiency inherent within the
design of the relay.
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…FUNCTIONS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
 The setting of protection relays is not a definite science.
 Depending on local conditions and requirements, setting of
each protective function has to be optimized to achieve the
best balance between reliability, security and speed of
operation.
 Protection settings should therefore be calculated by
protection engineers with vast experience in protective
relaying, power system operation and performance and
quality of supply.

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REQUIRED INFORMATION FOR PROTECTIVE
SETTING
Line Parameters:
 For a new line: final total line length as well as the lengths, conductor
sizes and tower types of each section where different tower types or
conductors have been used.
 This information is used to calculate the parameters (positive and
zero sequence resistance, reactance and susceptance) for each
section.
 Maximum load current or apparent power (MVA) corresponding to
the emergency line which can be obtained from the table of standard
conductor rating (available in each utility).
 The number of conductors in a bundle has to be taken into
consideration.
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…REQUIRED INFORMATION FOR
PROTECTIVE SETTING
 Transformer Parameters:
 The manufacturer's positive and zero sequence impedance
test values have to be obtained.
 The transformer nameplate normally provides the
manufacturer's positive sequence impedance values only.
 Terminal Equipment Rating:
 The rating of terminal equipment (CB, CT, line trap, links) of
the circuit may limit its transfer capability therefore the rating
of each device has to be known.
 Data can be obtained from the single line diagrams.

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 …REQUIRED INFORMATION FOR
PROTECTIVE SETTING
Fault Studies
 Results of fault studies must be provided.
 The developed settings should be checked on future cases modelled with
the system changes that will take place in the future (e.g. within 5 years).
 Use a maximum fault current case.

CT & VT Ratios:
 Obtain the CT ratios as indicated on the protection diagrams.
 For existing circuits, it is possible to verify the ratios indicated on the
diagrams by measuring the load currents on site and comparing with a
known ratio.

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…REQUIRED INFORMATION FOR
PROTECTIVE SETTING
 Checking For CT Saturation:
 Protection systems are adversely affected by CT saturation. It is the
responsibility of protection engineers to establish for which forms of
protection and under what conditions the CT should not saturate.
 CTs for Transformer Differential Protection:
 MV, HV and LV CTs must be matched as far as possible taking into
consideration the transformer vector group, tap changer influence and
the connection of CTs.
 CTs for Transformer Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Protection:
 All CT ratios must be the same (as with the bus zone
protection), except if the relay can internally correct
unmatched ratios. 14
PROTECTION SETTINGS PROCESS
 The Protection Settings team obtains all the information necessary
for correct setting calculations.
 The settings are then calculated according to the latest philosophy,
using sound engineering principles. Pre-written programs may be
used as a guide.
 After calculation of the settings, it is important that another
competent person checks them.
 The persons who calculate and who check the settings both sign the
formal settings document.
 The flowchart in Fig. 2 indicates information flow during protection
setting preparation for commissioning of new Transmission plant.

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 Fig. 2 Information flow during
protection settings preparation
Project leader of the Protection
Settings team determines scope IED manufacturers provide bay
of work and target dates specific IED details

Engineering team provides bay

specific proformas and drawings
Corrective actions and re-issue of
Summary and comparison of inputs drawings
OK
Not OK
Study new protection and create
necessary setting templates in
liaison with engineering team and
IED manufactureres Interface with the Expansion Planing
team and IED manufacturers to obtain
Calculation and verification of settings relevant equipment parameters for
correct system modelling

Settings stored in central database Centralised Settings Management

and formal document issued System sends the action documents
to the field staff

Implementation date and responsible

field person stored in the central
database -> implementation action
Implementation sheet completed Corrective actions required to 16
by field staff and returned to ensure implementation
Protection Settings team
 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
 To achieve maximum flexibility, relays is designed using the concept of
functional elements which include protection elements, control elements,
input and output contacts etc.
 The protection elements are arranged to detect the system condition, make a
decision if the observed variables are over/under the acceptable limit, and
take proper action if acceptable limits are crossed.
 Protection element measures system quantities such as voltages and
currents, and compares these quantities or their combination against a
threshold setting (pickup values).
 If this comparison indicates that the thresholds are crossed, a decision
element is triggered.
 This may involve a timing element, to determine if the condition is
permanent or temporary. If all checks are satisfied, the relay (action
element) operates. 17
 Sequence of protection operation initiated by a fault is
shown in Fig. 3.

Pickup of Operation of
Fault protection element protection element

Assertion of relay Action of relay

trip logic signal trip contact

Circuit breaker
Fault cleared
opening

Fig. 3 Sequence of operation. 18

 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
 Protective relays respond and operate according to defined operating
characteristic and applied settings.
 Each type of protective relay has distinctive operating characteristic
to achieve implementation objective: sensitivity, selectivity,
reliability and adequate speed of operation.
 Basic operating characteristics of protective elements is as follows:
 Overcurrent protection function: the overcurrent element operates
or picks up when its input current exceeds a predetermined value.
 Directional function: an element picks up for faults in one direction,
and remains stable for faults in the other direction.

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…OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
 Distance protection function: an element used for protection
of transmission lines whose response is a function of the
measured electrical distance between the relay location and
the fault point.
 Differential protection function: it senses a difference
between incoming and outgoing currents flowing through the
protected apparatus.
 Communications-Assisted Tripping Schemes: a form of the
transmission line protection that uses a communication
between distance relays at opposite line ends resulting in
selective clearing of all line faults without time delay.
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OVERCURRENT AND DIRECTIONAL
PROTECTION ELEMENTS
 An overcurrent condition occurs when the maximum continuous
load current permissible for a particular piece of equipment is
exceeded.
 A phase overcurrent protection element continuously monitors the
phase current being conducted in the system and issue a trip
command to a CB when the measured current exceeds a
predefined setting.
 The biggest area of concern for over-current protection is how to
achieve selectivity.
 Some possible solutions have been developed, including
monitoring current levels (current grading), introducing time
delays (time grading) or combining the two as well as including a
directional element to detect the direction of current flow. 21
CURRENT GRADING
 Current grading will achieve selectivity by determine the
location of a fault using purely magnitude of current.
 It is difficult to implement this in practice unless feeder
sections have sufficient differences in impedance to cause
noticeable variations in fault current.
 In a network where there are several sections of line
connected in series, without significant impedances at their
junctions there will be little difference in currents, so
discrimination or selectivity cannot be achieved using current
grading.

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TIME DELAYS
 An alternate means of grading is introducing time delays between
subsequent relays.
 Time delays are set so that the appropriate relay has sufficient time to open
its breaker and clear the fault on its section of line before the relay
associated with the adjacent section acts.
 Hence, the relay at the remote end is set up to have the shortest time delay
and each successive relay back toward the source has an increasingly longer
time delay.
 This eliminates some of the problems with current grading and achieves a
system where the minimum amount of equipment is isolated during a fault.
 However, there is one main problem which arises due to the fact that timing
is based solely on position, not fault current level.
 So, faults nearer to the source, which carry the highest current, will take
longer to clear, which is very contradictory and can prove to be quite costly.
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DIRECTIONAL ELEMENTS
 Selectivity can be achieved by using directional elements in conjunction
with instantaneous or definite-time overcurrent elements.
 Directional overcurrent protection schemes respond to faults in only one
direction which allows the relay to be set in coordination with other relays
downstream from the relay location.
 This is explained using example in Fig. 4.

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DIRECTIONAL ELEMENTS
 By providing directional elements at
the remote ends of this system,
which would only operate for fault
currents flowing in one direction we
can maintain redundancy during a
fault.
 This is in line with one of the main
outcomes of ensuring selectivity,
which is to minimize amount of
circuitry that is isolated in order to
Fig. 4: Use of direction element clear a fault.
example

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DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW
 In AC systems, it is difficult to determine the direction of current flow and
the only way to achieve this is to perform measurements with reference to
another alternating quantity, namely voltage. The main principle of how
directional elements operate is based on the following equations for
torque:
TA  VBC  I A  cos(VBC  I A )

TB  VCA  I B  cos(VCA  I B )

TC  V AB  I C  cos(V AB  I C )

 If current is in the forward direction, then the sign of the torque equation
will be positive and as soon as the direction of current flow reverses, the
sign of the torque equation becomes negative. These calculations are
constantly being performed internally inside directional element.
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DISTANCE PROTECTION FUNCTION
 A distance protection element measures the quotient V/I
(impedance), considering the phase angle between the
voltage V and the current I.
 In the event of a fault, sudden changes occur in
measured voltage and current, causing a variation in the
measured impedance.
 The measured impedance is then compared against the
set value.
 Distance element will trip the relay (a trip command will
be issued to the CB associated with the relay) if the
measured value of the impedance is less then the value
set.
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…DISTANCE PROTECTION FUNCTION

Fig. 5 Distance protection principle of operation.

 In Fig. 5 the impedance measured at the relay point A is

,Zwhere
in  R  jx
L  xis the distance to the fault (short circuit), and R and

L are transmission line parameters in per unit length. The line

length is l in the fig.. 28
 …DISTANCE PROTECTION FUNCTION

 We can see that the impedance value of a fault loop increases

from zero for a short circuit at the source end A, up to some
finite value at the remote end B. We can use this principle to set
up zones of distance protection as well as to provide feedback
about where a fault occurred (distance to fault).
 Operating characteristics of distance protection elements are
usually represented using R-X diagrams.
 Fig. 6 shows an example of Mho R-X operating characteristic.
The relay is considered to be at the origin.

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…DISTANCE PROTECTION FUNCTION
X

Region of
Line Q non-operation
120%
B outside the circle

80%
Zone 2
Line P
Z RS
Load
Region of region
operation
Zone 1

A R

Fig. 6 Mho positive-sequence R-X operating

characteristic of a distance element. 30
…DISTANCE PROTECTION FUNCTION
 The need for zones shown in Fig. 6 arises from the need of
selective protection; i.e. the distance element should only
trip faulty section.
 We can set the distance element to only trigger a trip signal
for faults within a certain distance from the relay, which is
called the distance element reach.
 The setting impedance is represented by , where
Z RS only
ZL is the line impedance. The distance element will hs Z L trip

when the measured impedance ZR is less than or equal to the

setting impedance hsZL.
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 …DISTANCE PROTECTION FUNCTION
 Typically hs is set to protect 80% of the line between two buses and
this forms protection Zone 1.
 Errors in the VTs and CTs, modeled transmission line data, and fault
study data do not permit setting Zone 1 for 100% of the transmission
line.
 If we set Zone 1 for 100% of the transmission line, unwanted tripping
could occur for faults just beyond the remote end of the line.

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…DISTANCE PROTECTION FUNCTION
 Zone 2 is set to protect 120% of the line, hence making it
over-reaching, because it extends into the section of line
protected by the relay at point B. To avoid nuisance
tripping, any fault occurring in Zone 1 is cleared
instantaneously, while faults which occur in Zone 2 are
cleared after a time delay in order to allow relay B to
clear that fault first.
 This provides redundancy in the protection system
(backup), whilst maintaining selectivity.

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