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Introduction To Visual Inspection-NDT-by-KD
Introduction To Visual Inspection-NDT-by-KD
Outline
• Introduction
• Basic principles
• Manual Vision Inspection
– Human Vision
– Common Inspection applications
– Equipment
• Automated or Machine Vision Inspection
– Machine Vision
– Common Inspection Applications
– Equipment
• Advantages and Limitations
• Glossary of terms
Introduction
• Visual inspection is commonly defined as “the examination of a
material, component, or product for conditions of
nonconformance using light and the eyes, alone or in
conjunction with various aids.
• Visual inspection often also involves, shaking, listening, feeling,
and sometimes even smelling the component being inspected.
• Visual inspection consists of at least two major processes.
– The first is a search process.
– The second is a process of combining relevant knowledge, sensory
input, and pertinent logical processes to provide an identification
that some anomaly or pattern represents a flaw that poses a risk to
the performance of the part.
• Visual inspection is commonly employed to support other NDT
methods.
• Digital detectors and computer technology have made it
possible to automate some visual inspections. This is known
as “machine vision inspection.”
Introduction
• Visual inspection is the most basic and most
commonly employed NDT method.
• It is applicable to a wide variety of material types and
product forms.
• Several characteristics about the part being examined
may be determined, which include dimensional
conformance, the presence of discontinuities, general
fit and wear, and simple cosmetic compliance.
• It can be performed by direct or indirect methods
during various stages of manufacturing or after the
component has been placed in-service.
Introduction
• The quality of an inspection are affected primarily by
four factors.
– The quality of the detector (eye or camera).
– The lighting conditions.
– The capability to process the visual data.
– The level of training and attention to detail.
Introduction –
Manual Versus Automated Inspection
• The majority of visual
inspections are completed
by an inspector, but
machine vision is becoming
more common.
• The primary advantage of an
inspector is their ability to quickly adapt to a variety of
lighting and other non-typical conditions, and their
ability to use other senses.
• The primary advantage of a machine vision inspection
system is their ability to make very consistent and rapid
inspections of specific details of a component.
• Machine vision is primarily used in production
applications where a large number of components
require inspection and the inspection conditions can be
closely controlled.
Basic Principles –
The Human Eye
• Light enters the eye through
the pupil and an image is
projected on the retina.
• Muscles move the eyeball in
the orbits and allow you to
focus the image on the central
retina or fovea.
Basic Principles –
The Human Eye
The retina is a mosaic of two basic types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.
• Rods are sensitive to blue-green light and are used for vision under dark or dim conditions.
• Cones operate only in relatively bright light, but they provide us with our sharpest images
and enable us to see colors. There are three types of cones
– L-cones are red absorbing cones or those that absorb best at the relatively long wavelengths
peaking at 565 nm
– M-cones are green absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 535 nm
– S-cones are blue absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 440 nm.
Basic Principles – Visual Acuity
• Cones provide us with our sharpest
images because most of the 3 million
cones in each retina are confined to a
small region just opposite the lens
called the fovea. The maximum
concentration is about 180,000 cones
per square mm.
• Our sharpest and most colorful images
are produced in the fovea.
• Outside of this region our vision is
relatively poor but, since we can quickly
redirect our eyes we tend not to be
aware of our poor peripheral vision.
Basic Principles – Visual Acuity
There is a b n c
’ 180,000
limit to what
X/2
2 ’ 1 mm
X Cones
the unaided b’
1 mm
In this image:
– The luminance of pixels is varied
sinusoidally in the horizontal
direction. The spatial frequency
increases exponentially from
left to right.
– The contrast also varies
logarithmically from 100% at the
bottom to about 0.5% at the top.
– The luminance of peaks and Campbell, F. W. and Robson, J. G. (1968) Application of Fourier analysis to
troughs remains constant along the visibility of gratings. Journal of Physiology (London) Image Courtesy
of Izumi Ohzawa, Ph.D. University of California School of Optometry
a given horizontal path through the image.
Are the horizontal lines parallel or How many black dots do you see?
do they slope?
Basic Principles – Vision
• When evaluations are made by an
inspector, eye examinations must be
done at regular intervals to assure
accuracy and sensitivity. These
examinations may consist
of the following:
• Near Vision (Jaeger)
• Far Vision (Snellen)
• Color Differentiation
• When using machine vision, different
but similar performance checks must
be performed.
Basic Principles
• For best results the inspector or
machine vision operator must have:
– A basic knowledge of material processing,
forming, machining and joining processes.
– A general understanding of design features,
application and service requirements.
– Specific instructions on what to look for and
specific accept/reject criteria.
Inspection Applications
Applications for visual inspection and many and range
from looking a product over for obvious defect to
performing detailed inspections. Some of the common
applications include:
• Detection of surface anomalies such as scratches,
excess surface roughness, and areas void of paint
or plating.
• Crack, porosity, corrosion or other flaw detection.
• Dimensional conformance.
• Precision measurements.
• Foreign object detection.
• Component location.
Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
• Visual inspection of
manufactured materials
and components is a
cost effective means of
identifying flaws.
• Visual inspection of a
casting reveals a crack
between a threaded
opening and a pressed
fit.
• The aluminum sand
casting has hot tears
and shrinkage at the
transition zones.
Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
In-service inspections of
existing components and
structures is commonly
accomplished visually.
• In this example, visual
inspection of a fire escape
reveals a failure in a
handrail tube.
• The failure is in the tube
seam and is likely the
result of ice expansion.
Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
Normal inspection practices
for highway bridges rely
almost entirely on visual
inspection to evaluate the
condition of the bridges.
Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
Over 80 percent of all aircraft
inspections are performed
visually.
Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
• Weld quality requirements
are commonly determined
through visual inspection.
• Many standards have
established acceptance
criteria for welds.
Palmgren gage
Fillet gage set
VWAC gage
Cambridge gage
Dimensional Conformance
Visual inspection is commonly used to determine weld size and
tolerances according to standards and engineering specifications.
Measurement of undercut
depth with VWAC gage.
Dimensional Conformance
Component finish dimensions are checked with the use of
measurement devices, such as transferring gages and
precision measurement gages.
Example:
− The second major divisions (line 2) on the
sleeve is visible (2 x 0.100” = 0.200”)
− Three minor divisions after line 2 are visible
(3 X 0.025” = 0.075”)
− The beveled edge of the thimble is between
0 and 1 (0 x 0.001 = 0)
0.200”
− The vernier scale has the sixth line on the
0.075”
sleeve perfectly lined up with one of the
marks on the thimble ( 6 x 0.0001 = 0.0006”) 0.000”
0.0006”
− The micrometer reading is: 0.2756”
0.2756”
Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Transfer instruments are
used to take measurements
which are transferred to
direct measurement devices.
• They consist of calipers,
dividers, telescoping gages
and small hole gages.
Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Spring type calipers are available
for contact measurements of inside
and outside dimensions.
• They are useful for measuring
distances between and over
surfaces.
• They are commonly used to
transfer dimensions or sizes
between the work piece and
standard measuring devices, such
as graduated rules.
• The size of a linear or rounded
indication of a discontinuity may be
measured with dividers.
Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Small hole gages are a type of transfer instrument used to
measure small holes or slots.
• They are generally supplied in sets with a range of 1/8” - 1/2”.
• The actual measurement is determined by transferring a
properly adjusted gage to a micrometer.
Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Telescoping gages make
inside measurements such as
hole diameter and slot width.
• They are designed to be
measured by a micrometer
after being set to the hole or
slot size.
• To make accurate
measurements it is important
to make sure the telescoping
gage is aligned properly in
the measuring faces of the
micrometer.
Equipment – Screw Pitch Gage
• The screw pitch gage is a
basic visual aid for checking
the number of threads per
inch and rough inaccuracies
of threads.
• The gage consists of a steel
case with a number of folding
leaves at each end.
• Each leaf is number and
contains teeth corresponding
to a specific thread pitch.
Direct and Remote
Visual Inspection
• Many codes refer to direct visual examination as a
visual inspection which requires that access to the
area is sufficient to place the eye within 24 inches of
the surface to be examined and at an angle of not
less than 30º to that surface.
• If these requirements cannot be met, then remote
visual inspection may be used.
• Remote visual inspection may be accomplished with
the use of a number of optical aids such as, mirrors,
magnifiers, and rigid or flexible borescopes.
Optical Aids
• Mirrors are valuable aids in visual
inspection, they allow the inspection
of threaded and bored holes, inside
surfaces of pipes and fittings, as
well as many others.
• Magnifiers assist the visual
inspector by enlarging the size of
the object being examined.
• Comparators are a magnifier with a
measuring capability. The
comparator has interchangeable
reticles which provide
measurements for threads, angles,
linear measurement, diameters and
radii.
Optical Aids
• Borescopes are visual aids used for the inspection of internal
surface areas.
• They are designed for remote viewing in difficult to reach
areas such as jet engines, cylinders, tanks, and various
enclosed chambers.
• Borescopes are available in many different diameters and
lengths, and are classified as rigid or flexible.
Visual Inspection With A Borescope