OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lessons on Transient Analysis of DC Circuits

(Chapter 4) , students should be able to:
Distinguish and compare the main differences between capacitance,
resistance and inductance, their properties, analogous quantities and the
formulae used in solving capacitive and inductive DC circuits.
Know how to calculate equivalent capacitance and inductance, energy
stored in a capacitive network and inductive network.
Understand self-inductance, DC waveforms related to RC and RL
transient circuits, their effects in electrical circuits and application areas.
Explain the meanings of capacitive and inductive time constants and
five (5) time constants as applied to the charging and discharging cycles
of a RC and RL circuit respectively.
Apply the exponential rise and decay equations to analyse and solve RC
and RL transient circuits.
 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF DC CIRCUITS
The table below summarises the properties of three passive components
commonly used in DC and AC electrical circuits.
Resistance Capacitance Inductance
R C L
+ –

Practical resistance R opposes Practical capacitance C has Practical inductance L

current I and will change at
higher voltages whereas an
ideal resistor has a fixed
resistance for any input
voltages. • It neither delivers
power nor stores energy but
only dissipates power.
Resistor R behaves the same
way during transient interval
as in the steady state. In other
words, a resistor has no
transient state. • It limits I,
dissipates P and creates p.d.
a leakage resistance which
does dissipate some power.
However, an ideal capacitor
does not dissipate energy.
• It stores energy in its
electric field when charged.
Capacitor C opposes
changes in voltage V during
transient interval but acts
as an • open circuit in
direct current (DC) steady
state.
dissipates energy due to its
winding resistance and
hysteresis losses in the core.
An ideal inductor does not
dissipate any energy. • It
stores energy in its magnetic
field when energised.
Inductor L opposes the
change in current I during
transient interval but acts as a
• short circuit in direct
current (DC) steady state.
 Resistor with 4-colour Bands
• 1st and 2nd bands represent the resistance value i.e.
0 to 9 in Ohm []; 0 is not applicable to 1st band
• 3rd band represents the multiplier e.g. x 1, x 10, x
1k or x 1M
• 4th band indicates the percentage tolerance
Capacitor

Capacitors have
two primary
parameters,
viz.,
capacitance
(Farads) and
maximum
working
voltage (volts)
 Capacitor Marking

 First two digits refer to the

capacitance value
 Third digit represents the
multiplier
 Tantalum and electrolytic
capacitors have polarities
which must be strictly
observed and connected
COMPARISON BETWEEN MAGNETIC & ELECTRICAL FORMULAE
Magnetic Circuit Formulae Electric Circuit Formulae
 Reluctance m [A/Wb or 1/H]  Resistance R [Ohm, ]
Magnetic Flux
 = MMF / m [Wb] Current I = V / R [A] ; Also
 Current I = V G ; G = 1 / R
 Inductance L [Henry, H]  Capacitance C [Farad, F]
L = N2 / m = N2  A C=A/d=Q/V=
/ l = L = N / I = R  I t /V C =  / R
Note: A coil L can produce a Note: A capacitor C can produce
surge of very high voltage V. a burst of large current I.
Inductors dissipate some heat Capacitors cannot be charged
due to the small coil resistances. instantly because their
An inductor stores magnetic capacitances oppose the flow of
energy in the magnetic field of current. A capacitor stores
the coil when it is energised. electrical energy in the electric
 COMPARISON BETWEEN MAGNETIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD
FORMULAE
Magnetomotive Force MMF = NI = Hl Electric Voltage V = d [Volt = V]
[Ampere-turn = A] ; H : Magnetising V: Electric voltage between the
force [A/m] ; N: No. of coil turns ; plates [V] ; : Electric field intensity
I: Current [A] ; l : magnetic flux [V/m]; d : plate distance or
path [m] separation [m]
Magnetic flux density B = orH [Wb/m2] ; Electric flux density D = o r  [C/m2] ;
o : Magnetic field constant = 4 x 10- o : Electric field constant = 8.85 x 10-12
7
[Vs/Am=Wb/Am=H/m] ; [As/Vm=F/m] ; r = Relative permittivity
r : Relative permeability of material of the dielectric material
Absolute permeability  = o r Absolute permittivity  = o r

Magnetic flux  = B A [Wb=Vs] ; Electric flux  = D A [Coulomb = C] ;

A = Cross-sectional area [m2] A = Plate cross-sectional area [m2]
Magnetic A Electric 
field, ,  field, , D

MMF d V
l
 Capacitance and Electric Field

Electric field Dielectric

Charge carriers
Lead
+Q –Q
+V –V

Plate 2
Plate 1
A
d
Capacitor Principle
 Charge and Capacitance of a Capacitor
The electric charge Q has the unit Ampere-second [As] or Coulomb
[ C ].

Recall: Quantity of charge Q [C] = Current I [A] x Time t [s]

i.e. Q = I t i.e 1 Coulomb [C] = 1 [A s]
The capacitance C of a capacitor has the unit [As / V] or [Farad F ].
Recall: Capacitance C = Quantity of charge Q / Voltage V
i.e. C = Q / V [ As / V = C / V = s /  = Farad F ] ;
Note: Ampere[A] / Volt[V] = 1 /Ohm [  ]
The unit of capacitance C is Coulomb / Volt [ C/V ] , which is
termed the farad, abbreviated F in the SI system of units.
Practical units of capacitance C are:
Capacitance C = 1F = 1 x 10-6 F (one
microfarad) Capacitance C =
1nF = 1 x 10-9 F (one nanofarad)
 Comparison between Capacitance and Inductance Formula
Capacitance C Inductance L
C : capacitance [Farad F= s/] L : inductance [Henry H = s]
Also C = Time constant c  R Also L = Time constant L x R
where c = capacitive time constant where L = inductive time constant
 : permittivity of free space [F/m] m : magnetic reluctance [At/Wb]
o
r : o : permeability of free space
relative permittivity of dielectric [H/m] r : relative permeability of
material A : plate material (absolute value)
surface area of uniformly charged l : mean flux path
capacitor [m2] or length [m] L = N2 / m
d : plate distance [m] where m = l / o rA
C =  o r A / d [At/Wb=1/s] ; N = No. of coil
(applicable only to one turns ; A = cross-
2
 Series connected Capacitors in DC Circuits
V1 V2 Vs
+V + – + – 0V +V + – 0V

Q1 Q2 Q
C1 C2 Cs
Vs Equivalent Circuit
Series connected capacitors always possess the same charge Q.
i.e. Q = Q1 = Q2 where Q is the equivalent charge.
Supply Voltage Vs = V1 + V2 (General EMF equation)
Hence, Q/Cs = ( Q1 / C1 ) + ( Q2 / C2 ) where Cs is the equivalent
capacitance of the two series connected capacitors ;
Simplifying this equation gives 1 / Cs = ( 1 / C1 ) + ( 1 / C2 )
Also Cs = ( C1 x C2 ) / ( C1 + C2 ) [ This product 
sum equation is applicable only to two series connected capacitors
taken at a time. ) Generally, for series connected capacitors the total
 Parallel connected Capacitors in DC Circuits
C1
As Q = CVs , similarly Q1 = C1 Vs , Q2 = C2 Vs
+ –
and Q3 = C3 Vs ; Therefore,
Q1
total charge Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 Alternatively,
C2 Q = CpVs = C1Vs + C2Vs + C3Vs gives
+ – Cp = C 1 + C 2 + C 3 ( Vs is common for
Q2 parallel connected capacitors)
Vs
C3
+V + – 0V
+ – 
Q3 Q
Cp
Vs Equivalent Circuit
+V 0V
 Energy stored in Capacitors
Capacitors store electrical energy in the electric fields. The
electrical energy of a capacitor can be calculated using the following
equation:

Electrical energy stored in a capacitor Wc = ½ ( CV2 )

Joule, J for short, is the unit of DC capacitive electrical energy.
Note: 1Wattsecond [Ws] = 1 Joule [J] = 1 Newton-metre [Nm]

Likewise, Wc = ½ ( Q2 / C ) = ½ ( Q V ) [Joule J]
For series connected capacitors, Ws = ½ ( CsVs2 ) where
Cs is the equivalent or total capacitance of the series capacitive
circuit, and Vs the supply voltage.
Similarly, for parallel connected capacitors, Wp =½
(C V2) where C is the total capacitance of the parallel
 Types of Capacitors
1. Air capacitors for radios eg. variable(tuning) and trimmer
2. Paper capacitors
3. Mica capacitors
4. Ceramic capacitors eg. disk
type 5. Electrolytic
capacitors (polarised types for DC circuits only); tubular in
shape and can-type with either axial or radial leads.

Typical Applications of Capacitors

1. Spot welder
2. Flash tube, camera flash unit
3. Capacitor discharge ignition system
4. Medical defibrillator
5. Electronic circuits e.g. timing, coupling, filter, resonant
circuits, etc.
6. Radios, TV tuners, strobe lights, etc.
 Tutorial on Capacitive DC Circuits
Q1. A capacitor has a capacitance of 2F with air as the dielectric. It
has a plate distance of 0.05mm. Calculate the plate surface area
required. Take electric field constant o = 8.85x10-12 [F/m] Ans.: A = 11.3m2
Q2. A charged capacitor has a capacitance of 10F and possesses
0.2J of electrical energy. Find its voltage. Ans.: Vc = 200V
Q3. Calculate the resultant capacitance Ceq between terminals A and
B as shown in Figure Q3. C2 Ans.: Ceq = 2.5F
A
C1 to C7 = 1.5F
C5
C1 C4 C7

Figure Q3 B
C3 C6
 Tutorial on Capacitive DC Circuits
Q4. A capacitor of 2.2F is required for a high-voltage appliance. It
has to be connected to a supply voltage of 2000V. Metallized paper
capacitors, each of 10F and rated voltage 500V, are available.
(a) How must the capacitors be connected to withstand the supply
voltage? Ans.: 4 series connected capacitors, each with a high ohmic
resistance connected in parallel to it.
(b) What is the equivalent capacitance of the
capacitive network? Ans.: For n = 4 capacitors, Ceq1 = 2.5F ;
for n = 5 , Ceq2 = 2 F
Q5. What are the partial voltages across the capacitors, if only
capacitor C1 is charged to 100V before closing switch 100V
S? [Figure Q5]
Ans.: VAB = V’1 = 81.8V , V2 = 27.3V A, B
 V3 = 54.5V C3 = 1 F
C2 = 2 F C1=3 F S
Figure Q5
 Solutions to Tutorial on Capacitive DC Circuits
Q1. Using the capacitance formula, C = or A / d where electric field
constant o = 8.85x10-12 F/m ; r = 1 for air dielectric ; capacitance C =
2 x 10-6 F and plate distance d = 0.05mm = 0.05 x 10-3 m ;
Thus, capacitance plate area A = C d / or = 2 x 10-6 [F] x 0.05 x 10-3
[m] / 8.85 x 10-12 x 1 [F/m] = 11.3 m2
Q2. Electric field energy W = ½(CV2) [Joules : J for short] ;
Note : 1J  1VAs ; 1F  1s/ ; Hence, Voltage V = (2W / C) ;
Substituting the values gives V = (2 x 0.2J / 10 x 10-6 F) = 40000 =
Voltage V across charged capacitor = 200V
Q3. C123 = (1/3) x 1.5F = 0.5F (3 series connected capacitors) ;
Likewise, C567 =(1/3) x 1.5F = 0.5F (3 series connected capacitors)
;
Thus, equivalent capacitance Ceq = C123 + C4 + C567 =
 Solutions to Tutorial on Capacitive DC Circuits
Q4. (a) The purpose of the parallel connected resistances R of large
values across each identical capacitor C connected in series is to
stabilise its voltage.
R R R R
4 identical capacitors (@
10F & 400V rated
voltage) connected in
Vc series
Vs = 2000V

(b) Ceq1 = (¼ x 10F) = 2.5 F (for four identical series connected capacitors)
Ceq2 = (1/5 x 10F) = 2.0 F (for five identical series connected capacitors)
Voltage across each capacitor Vc = 1/5 x 2000V = 400V (rated voltage of
each identical capacitor is 500V)
 Solutions to Q5 of Tutorial on Capacitive DC Circuits
Q5. Before closing switch S: QC1 = C1 V1 = 3F x 100V = 300C
(total charge stored on C1); Capacitors C2 and C3 have no charge (Q)

After closing switch S: C1 becomes connected in parallel to C2

which has previously been connected in series with C3.

Hence, V’1 = V2 + V3 (KVL) where V’1 = voltage across C1 after

closing switch S, and V2 & V3 are the partial voltages of C2 and C3
respectively. The KVL equation can also be rewritten as
Q’C1/C1 = QC2 /C2 + QC3 /C3 as V = Q/C ; QC2 = QC3= QC23 ( series
connected capacitors C2 and C3 )
Furthermore, QC1 = Q’C1 + QC23 (for parallel connected capacitors,
the total charge Q is equal to the sum of the equivalent charges)
 Solutions to Q5 of Tutorial on DC Capacitive Circuits
V’1
A Q’c1 C1=3 F B

V2 V3
S closed
Figure Q5 Qc2 Qc3
C2 = 2 F C3 = 1 F

QC1 – Q’C1 / Q’C1 = C2 x C3 / C1(C3+C2) ; Substituting the values

gives QC1 – Q’C1 / Q’C1 = 2 x 1 / 3 ( 1 +2) ; Note: F omitted to
simplify calculation; QC1 – Q’C1 / Q’C1 = 2/9 ; QC1 / Q’C1 = (2/9) +1
Thus, Q’C1 = 9 x 300 C /11  245.45 C ;
OR QC23 = QC1 x 2/11 = 54.545C
V’1 = 245.45 C /3 F = 81.82V ; V2
= (300 – 245.45)C /2 F = V2 = 27.275V and V3 = 2V2 = 54.55V
; C2V2 = C3V3 as QC2 = QC3
 Self-inductance of an Inductor
orig

i
Key: orig +
= original flux ind iind
ind = induced flux iind Vs Vind l
Coil L of
= induced current
N turns
–
A coil has an inductance of 1 Henry[H] if an electromotive force
EMF of 1 Volt[V] is induced in it when the current i changes at
the rate of 1 Ampere [A] per second [s].
Hence, vind = L di/dt [V]
Coil L
+ i –

Vs
 Series connected Inductors in DC Circuits
L1 L2 L3
+V i 0V

V1 V2 V3
Vs
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3 ; Since V = – e = L di /dt
Therefore Vs = L1 di/dt + L2 di/dt + L3 di/dt = di/dt (L1 + L2 + L3)
Thus Vs = Ls di /dt where Ls is the total inductance of the three
series connected inductances, that is L s = L1 + L 2 + L 3
Ls
+ 0V

Vs
Equivalent Circuit
 Parallel connected Inductors in DC Circuits
L1 For a parallel inductive circuit:
i1
Total current i = i1 + i2 + i3 (KCL) ;
Differentiating both sides gives
L2 di/dt = di1/dt + di2/dt + di3/dt where
i2
di/dt = Vs / Lp ;
Therefore, Vs/Lp = Vs/L1 + Vs/L2 + Vs/L3
L3
i3 gives 1/Lp = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3
(Vs is common for parallel connected
i Vs inductors)
+V  0V This shows that the equivalent inductances of
Lp inductive circuits without mutual inductance /
coupling, regardless of whether they are
i connected in series or parallel are treated in a
Vs similar wayCircuit
Equivalent as resistances.
+ 0V
 Energy stored in Inductors
Inductors are energy storage elements like capacitors. Its energy is
stored in the magnetic field of the coil. This energy can be calculated
by using the following equation:
Magnetic energy stored in the magnetic field of a coil
Wcoil = ½ ( LI2 ) [Joule J] where L = inductance of coil
[1 Henry H = 1 s], and I = current flowing in the coil [Ampere A] ;
Note: For example, 1s x 1A = 1 Ws = 1 J
For series connected inductive circuit,Ws = ½ (LsI2)
[Joule J] where Ls = total inductance of series connected inductors,
and I the current flowing in the inductive circuit.
Similarly for parallel connected inductive circuit,
Wp = ½ (LpIT2 ) [Joule J] where Lp = equivalent inductance
of parallel connected inductors, and IT the total current flowing in the
 Typical Applications of Inductors
Inductors are electrical devices that oppose a change of current.
They operate on the principle of electromagnetism and are used
in the following ways:
1. Air-core type
2. Iron-core type
3. With phasing
4. Centre-tap transformer / inductors with taps
5. Multiple windings
6. Autotransformer
7. Adjustable types used in radio and television circuits
8. Power supply type such as power transformer
9. Miniature type
 Tutorial on Inductive DC Circuits

Q1. The field windings of a machine consist of eight coils connected

in series, each containing 1200 turns. For a current of 3A, the flux
linked with each coil is 20mWb. Calculate the:
(a) inductance of the circuit
Ans.: 64H (b) energy stored and
Ans.: 288J (c )average
value of the induced EMF if the circuit is interrupted in 0.1s.
Ans.: 1920V
Q2. Find the:
Q2.+ L1=6H L5=2H (a) equivalent
A inductance and (b) total
energy stored in it when a
L6=
L2=8H L4=4H direct current of 800mA
2H flows in the inductive
L3=6H
I = 80mA circuit. Ans.: (a) Leq
B
– = 10H and (b) WLeq
 Solutions to Tutorial on Inductive DC Circuits
Q1. (a) Number of coils connected in series = 8 ;
Number of coil turns (N) = 1200 ; Current I flowing in coils =
3A ; Magnetic flux  linking each coil = 20mWb = 20 x 10−3 Wb
Using inductance equation L = N / I (single coil) Hence,
for 8 coils, LT = 8 N/ I = 8 x 1200 x 20 x 10-3 [Wb] / 3[A]
LT = 64H
(b) Total coil energy WTcoil = ½(LI2) = ½ (64H x 32A2) = 288J

(c) Induced voltage vind = L (di/dt) = 64H x (3A/0.1s) = 1920V

Q2 (a) Equivalent inductance Leq = [½(4H) +6H ]/ 2] + 6H = 10H

(b) Magnetic energy stored in coil, Wcoil = ½ (LI2) [J]
2 2