CHAPTER 2

WHAT IS A POLYGRAPH?

• A polygraph, or popularly known as a lie detector, refers to any

kind of similar machine that can measure and then record
physiological indices, including pulse rate, respiration, blood
pressure, and skin conductivity—all while a subject is being asked
to answer a series of questions. This chapter presents the main
components of a polygraph machine.
• A polygraph is often likened to a machine that flashes a light, rings
a bell, and creates a sound that quickly indicates when a person is
lying or not.
MOST COMMONLY USED MACHINE TO
PERFORM LIE DETECTION:

REID POLYGRAPH - is essentially

a pneumatically operated mechanical
recorder of changes in blood
pressure, pulse and respiration,
which is supplemented with a unit
for recording GSR (To, 2002).
FOUR MAJOR PARTS
OF THE modern
polygraph machine
 PNEUMOGRAPH
The top two “pens” of the machine record the abdominal and
thoracic breathing patterns of respirations and consist of
hollow, corrugated rubber tubes that are about 7 inches long.
Each tube is attached to a unit by a rubber hose, and is fastened
around the subject’s chest and abdomen. One end of the tube is
sealed and the other end is connected to the main machine by a
thick rubber hose (length: 6 feet, diameter: 1⁄4 inch). This hose
has a smaller diameter than the pneumograph tube itself.
During a test, the chest and abdomen circumference of a
subject increases with each inspiration of air. As the subject
exhales, the pneumograph tube stretches and contracts. This
effect is recorded through bellows onto the pens and to the
chart. As the subject inhales, it causes the pen to go up; as the
subject exhales, the pen goes down. This machine has a knob,
through which the air can be locked while in use and then
released after use.
women are considered “chest
breathers,”

men are “belly breathers.”

 CARDIOSPYGMOGRAPH
This refers to the fourth or bottom pen. This high
pressure system is a mechanically operated cardio unit
consisting of a blood pressure cuff wrapped around
the upper arm. This cuff is inflated for the duration of
the test. Specifically, the cuff is placed over the
brachial artery of the right arm for a more satisfactory
recording. This unit measures blood pressure, pulse
and heart rate, as well as the strength of pulse beat.
When the heart beats, this measurement is called a
systole, and when it relaxes, it is called a diastole.
 Galvanograph - Galvano Skin Reflex
(GSR)
This refers to the third, and the longest pen, of the
machine. It is about 7 inches long and records five
seconds earlier than the pneumo and cardio pens. The
GSR is attached to the last joint of the ring and the index
finger of the same hand of the subject. It records the
amount of perspiration produced when a subject
responds to a stimulus, which then triggers small
changes in the subject’s general level of resistance.
The recording galvanometer receives the signal, thus
causing the pen to swing from the zero baseline
reference. There are two kinds of electrodes used in a
polygraph: the finger electrodes, which are placed on the
index and ring finger of the subject, and the palm
electrodes, which are placed on the subject’s palm. The
cardiograph and galvanograph can never be placed on
the same arm, and must always be placed separately on
either arm of the subject.
 Kymograph
This is a device that continuously and simultaneously records the blood pressure, respiration and the GSR on the surface of
a moving graph paper under a recording pen. This drives the chart paper at the rate of 6 inches per minute with constant
speed. This device runs evenly all throughout the duration of a test. The kymograph records five seconds earlier than the
other three pens because the GSR pen extends half an inch further onto the chart than the other pens. Sudden electrical
fluctuations on the area where the examination is taking place can also reflect in the tracings, as shown in the example
below.
 Types of Polygraph Tests

• The General Question Test

• General Question Test Set-Up
• The Peak of Tension Tests
• The Zone Comparison Test
• Test of Espionage and Sabotage
• The Concealed Information Test
 The General Question Test

This test consists of a series of relevant, irrelevant, and control

questions that are asked in a planned order. The questions are
arranged in such a way that it is possible to compare responses
to relevant questions with a subject norm. Such responses are
compared with answers given by the subject to the irrelevant and
controlled questions. The formulated questions are all
answerable by “yes” or “no.” This is also called Mixed General
Question Test (MGQT).
General Question Test Set-Up
1. Irrelevant question – known truth or facts and is answerable by “yes”
2. Irrelevant question - known truth or facts
3. Weak relevant question - pertains to the case being investigated
4. Irrelevant question – known truth or facts
5. Strong relevant question – pertains to the case being investigated
6. Primary control questions - formulated for truth telling subject/s
7. Irrelevant question – known truth or facts
8. Evidence connecting (relevant question) – pertains to the case being
investigated
9. Knowledge question (relevant question) – pertains to the case being
investigated
10. Secondary control question – formulated for truth telling subject/s
 The Peak of Tension Tests

• This kind of test can only be done if there is no widespread

publicity about a crime, where details of facts pertaining to the
crime being investigated are known only to the victim, the suspect,
and the investigator. This test has been proven as a reliable
indicator of deception even after an intensive interrogation. There
are two kinds of peak of tension test, namely, the Peak of Tension
Test A (PTA) and the Peak of Tension Test B (PTB).
• The Peak of Tension Test is also used when the examiner does not
know the actual answer connected to the event but wants to use the
test anyway in aid of investigation. In this case, it is assumed that
the pattern of a guilty person’s autonomic responses would reveal
the right answer.
the peak of tension
type a
This is arguably the most reliable
because it reduces the margin of
error. The theory is that one or
more pertinent pieces of
information exist, which are
known only to the client, the
examiner, and the one guilty of
the offense.
This is designed to determine the location,
disposition, modus operandi, and amounts from a
list of “possibilities.” The card, name, and
number tests are also included to help convince a
skeptical subject of the accuracy of the
instrument. In application, the PTB resembles the
PTA in the sense that the former has the same
question formulation. However, in the PTB, there
is no restriction in the amount of questions that
can be used. Typically, due to cardio pressure,
the ideal number is between five to seven
questions duplicated on the same chart.
the peak of tension
type b
 The Zone Comparison Test

The red zone is where

the part where the
relevant questions are
asked The green zone is
where the part where
the probable-lie
comparison questions
The black zone is are asked
where the part where
other questions are
asked
 The Zone Comparison Test

In the ZCT, each zone is assumed to be threatening to any

given subject; however, depending on the examinee’s
mental set, it is anticipated that one particular zone is
more threatening than the others. Historically, the ZCT is
the first type of comparison question test to use a
numerical scoring system, mainly a seven-point rating
scale applied to physiological measures for each relevant
question included in the test.
Based on the results, the examiner is expected to form
three opinions about the relevant questions asked of the
subject: Truthful, Not truthful, and Inconclusive.
 Test of Espionage and Sabotage

It is a directed-lie test developed by the Polygraph Institute of the U.S. Department of Defense.
Currently, it is used by some U.S. government agencies, such as the U.S. Department of Energy,
for security screening purposes.
This test features a series of relevant and directed-lie comparison questions that are repeatedly
used to address varied related issues, such as sabotage, espionage, communicating with
unauthorized foreign contacts, and non-authorized release of information. The Test of Espionage
and Sabotage is scored using the conventional seven-position scoring system, wherein the total
score is the sum of the scores of three examination parameters for each question on all the charts.
The numerical thresholds are predefined regardless of whether a test indicates any kind of
significant response that could show either a deception or a form of inconclusive result. Here, a
judgment pertaining to a significant response is further assessed using further questioning and
further testing with other types of tests (e.g., single-issue format polygraph tests).
 The Concealed Information Test

It also known as concealed knowledge or guilty knowledge tests,

ask questions presented as sets of highly similar items, wherein
one represents a true fact and the others include some false
details regarding an incident being investigated. Such details
have not yet been publicized; hence, it is assumed that the true
answer would only be known to the investigators and those who
are at the scene of the incident being investigated.
FOUR PhaSES OF a POLYGRaPh TEST

PHASE 1: initial interview with the investigator or

Persons Requesting the Examination
PHASE 2: Pre–Test interview with the Subject
PHASE 3: Conduct of the instrumental Test
PHASE 4: Post Test interview with the Subject
PHASE 1: initial interview with the investigator
or Persons Requesting the Examination

In this phase, the ideal gathering of information includes the collection

of data available to the investigator, such as the incident report,
investigation report, and the statement of the victim (if still alive) or a
direct representative who can factually narrate the perpetrated offense.
The statement of the suspect may include the background investigation
on each individual suspect.
PHASE 2: Pre–Test interview with the
Subject

In Phase 2, the examiner will have the initial contact with the suspect. He must be
cordial but reserved and maintain a friendly atmosphere so that the subject is more
relaxed after the gruelling investigation they have undergone under the investigator.
This can also help the subject “open up,” which will allow the examiner to gather
facts that the suspects withheld during interrogation and might still be beneficial to
the investigation. This is also the time when the examiner thoroughly explains the
procedure to the subject as he is being attached to the machine. This part takes
place inside the examination room where the subject has a clear view of the
machine that will be attached to him during the actual instrumentation.
 PHASE 3: Conduct of the instrumental
Test

At this point, the examiner attaches the polygraph transducers to the subject
with a brief explanation of the function of each component of the machine.
The examiner then asks a prepared list of questions that he has previously
reviewed with the subject. Keep in mind that the prepared questions must
be reviewed with the subject to eliminate any surprise reaction and to
reconstruct the question to help the subject easily understanding the
suspect. Next, the examiner checks whether the components are securely
attached to the subject by running the machine for about 20 to 30 seconds.
The success of a polygraph test greatly depends on the rapport the examiner
establishes between himself and his subject.
PHASE 4: POST TEST INTERVIEW WITH
THE SUBJECT

During this phase, the examiner assesses the insights of the subject
regarding the test (i.e., the subject’s thoughts during the actual test).
Doing this helps the examiner handle other cases involving a similar
offense. Sometimes, the examiner can also obtain a confession in this
phase, because there is that factor that plays in the mind of a guilty
suspect (i.e., that sooner or later, he will be found guilty of the crime he
has committed and has no choice because the test results would
implicate him anyway).
Afterwards, the examiner asks the subject to sign all the charts taken
during the test—another safeguard to help verify that no switching of
test charts occurred. After this phase, the subject will be released of
his/her attachment and the examiner concludes the test with a firm
handshake.
 ThE EXaMinaTiOn ROOM
• A specially equipped and furnished room should be set aside for an ideal examination room.
• The room must be semi-soundproof (to avoid false reaction on individual with claustrophobia).
• The room must also be free from any outside noise and distracting influences, such as a telephone,
intercom, bell buzzer, etc.
• At the same time, the room must be painted with white walls, must have limited furnishings, and should
be devoid of any decorations (posters, paintings, blinds and other ornaments that can distract the
attention of the subject). It should have a specially-built subject’s chair with concave armrest, a table
where the machine rests (easily seen by the subject), must be spacious enough so that the examiner will
have a small space to write while conducting the pre-test interview, a place for the charts, and a chair
for the examiner.
• The room must also be properly lighted as to avoid glaring effects to the subject, and must be
sufficiently ventilated (if air conditioned) so that a comfortable temperature is ensured.
It is also ideal for an examination room to have an adjoining “observation room”
with a one-way mirror for the following reasons:
a. observers, such as the subject’s lawyer and family, may want to witness the
examination procedure;
b. this eliminates the possibility that the subject accuses the
examiner of taking advantage during the examination proper;
c. provides security and protection to the examiner in case a subject becomes
agitated and resorts to physical harm;
d. to prevent the subject from escaping;
e. to protect the machine from any damage inflicted by the subject to thwart the
results of the examination; and
f. to provide other examiners the chance to observe the proceedings, just like in
medical school where they allow students to observe the actual procedure.
The room should also have a remote sound system or video tape amplifier so that
authorized audience or observers, including the investigators, can monitor the test
proceedings.
If an examination must be conducted away from the examination room (also known as “Field
Laboratory Work”), the examiner and the investigator both scout for the most conducive place
where the examination can be conducted.

a. The subject is at a high risk – When the subject cannot travel due to security reasons, as in
some high profile cases and confidential situations, where death threats are involved.
b. Cost considerations – When it is more expensive to bring the subject to the examination room
than for the examiners to go to the subject, then a field work is necessary.
c. When the work of the subject is affected – In this case, it would be better for the examiners to
conduct a test on site, because when a subject has other things in mind (e.g., having to go back
to work or missing work altogether), then this can affect the results of the examination.
d. Long travel time – If a subject has to travel for a long time, which can affect his health, then a
field work is necessary. Rather than wasting precious time, money and efforts, thus increasing
the likelihood of an inconclusive result, the examiner should just go to where the subject is
located.
 SELECTiOn OF TEST SUBJECT
1. Permanent Physical Illness
These include permanent physical illness, such as mental derangement, certain heart condition,
breathing disorder (severe kind of asthma), Tourette’s syndrome (a kind of illness wherein the person
suffers from uncontrollable body movement), and epilepsy with no pre- warnings. In such cases, the
examiner may request for a doctor’s go signal to continue with the examination. As per experience,
the examiner and investigator are advised by the doctor on the adverse effects that could happen if the
subject suffers an attack during the examination.
2. Temporary Illness
These include physical conditions, such as injury, pain, physical discomfort, extreme physical or
mental fatigue, open wounds, fever (and all its accompanying symptoms), allergies, emotional
condition, improper treatment during detention, and influences of sedatives or liquor. These are often
causes for deferment of the test until such a time when the subject can regain his normal physical
condition. The examiners may also require medical assistance to evaluate the degree of a subject’s
sickness. Often, the subject uses this as an excuse to avoid taking the polygraph test.
3. Treatment of the Subject
It is known that the treatment of the subject before he is asked to take the test
or while he is waiting for the test can affect the results of the polygraph test.
Prolonged interrogation with the accusation directed against the subject may
condition him to react falsely to the test, and may result in a flat, emotionless
chart. As per experience, some investigators could even resort to physically
harming the suspect, thus inflicting trauma to the subject, which he has to
carry for the rest of his life.
4. Pregnancy
If a subject is pregnant, the examiner must request a written permission from
the doctor of the pregnant subject. Given that a female subject also has a
monthly period, she must be free from this condition during the test as this
can greatly affect the results.
 POLYGRaPh TEST On ChiLDREn

a. It is necessary to condition children for the test using exaggerated pantomime hand drawings of what a test
looks like on the charts, and how the chart recordings go along in a straight line if they are telling the truth.
b. A pencil sketch rendered on paper is also advisable for the subjects, so that if they are lying, they will be
able to picture the responses that are being recorded.
c. During the pre-test interview, the examiner should ask the child about the consequences of a lie; if the child
is in doubt, they should be advised about the consequences of lying.
d. The child should be fully aware of the fact that a polygraph can detect a lie, if he tells one.
e. The test of a young subject must also be shorter, unlike in an adult test, in order to eliminate the possible
pain factor and to hold his attention. A longer test may easily destroy the validity of the added questions,
because of a child’s inability to sit quietly during an uncomfortable experience. Furthermore, their attention
may not be held for more than a few minutes.
ThE POLYGRaPh PaPERS

In the conduct of a polygraph test, there is a specific

type of paper used especially for a polygraph. This is
known as the “polygraph chart paper.” This comes in
a 100-feet roll that is marked on its upper part and
has an indicator informing the examiner that the roll
is about to run out as it exits the kymograph. Through
this indicator, which is a heavy red line stamped on
the last eight feet on the lower part of the roll, the
examiner can easily prepare the next roll to be used
in the machine.
ThE EFFECTS OF DRUGS anD aLCOhOL
On a POLYGRaPh TEST

The use of alcohol has minimal effects on the outcome of a

polygraph test. The key factor is whether or not the
polygraph subject knows that an act has been committed; it
is not necessary to remember all the intricate details, and
drugs are often cited as effective counter measures to a
polygraph test.
 ThREE TYPES OF DRUGS

Stimulants
There are two types of stimulant drugs:
a. Those that affect the central nervous system (CNS), such as
amphetamines (speed) cocaine, and antidepressants that include caffeine
and parnate; and
b. Those drugs that affect the heart, such as adrenalin, nitroglycerin, and
digitoxin. Both types of stimulant drugs can cause physiological changes
that may affect each tracing of the polygraph chart by increasing the
breathing rate and or decreasing the tracing amplitude through the creation
of faster and/or greater cardiac reactions.
Depressants
These types of drugs have six common categories, including alcohol,
antihistamines (e.g., Benadryl and prescription and non- prescription
antihistamine drugs), tranquilizers (e.g., Valium), anti- convulsants (e.g.,
Dilantin and Mesantoin), barbiturates (e.g., Nembutal and Seconal), and
narcotics (e.g., opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, and demerol). Depressant
drugs can cause physiological changes that, in turn, can affect each tracing of the
polygraph chart by decreasing the breathing rate and/or increasing the tracing
amplitude. This is achieved by creating slower and/or smaller GSRs, by
decreasing the heart rate, and/or by creating slower, smaller reactions.

Irritants
These are drugs that affect cell growth and nutrition, including multivitamins
and food supplements. Therefore, they are of no consequence to the polygraph
examiner.