ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY

Environmental criminology focuses on criminal patterns within particular

built environments and analyzes the impacts of these external variables on
people's cognitive behavior. It forms a part of Positivist School in that it applies
the scientific method to examine societal causes crime.
Theory
Environmental criminology is the study of crime, criminality, and victimization as they relate, first,
to particular places, and secondly, to the way that individuals and organizations shape their activities
spatially, and in so doing are in turn influenced by place-based or spatial factors.
In 1971 In that year, C. Ray Jeffery published "Crime Prevention Through Environmental
Design", in which he examined the role that immediate environments play in crime and suggested a
range of strategies for reducing crime by modifying immediate environments. He also coined the
term "environmental criminology".
Within fifteen years of the publication of Jeffery’s book, most of the seminal approaches of
environmental criminology had appeared, with later developments largely building on these
foundations.
 One such environmental criminology approach was developed in the 1980s, by Paul and Patricia
Brantingham, putting focus of criminological study on environmental or context factors that can
influence criminal activity. These include space (geography), time, law, offender, and target or victim.
These five components are a necessary and sufficient condition, for without one, the other four, even
together, will not constitute a criminal incident (Brantingham & Brantingham: 1991).
Environmental criminologists examine the place and the time when the crime happened. They are
interested in land usage, traffic patterns and street design, and the daily activities and movements of
victims and offenders.
Environmental criminologists often use maps to look for crime patterns, for example, using metric
topology. (Verma & Lodha: 2002)
 

Anomie is "the condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals".
Anomie may evolve from conflict of belief systems and causes breakdown of social bonds
between an individual and the community (both economic and primary socialization). In a
person this can progress into a dysfunction in ability to integrate within normative situations of
their social world - e.g., an unruly personal scenario that results in fragmentation of social
identity and rejection of values.
 Biosocial criminology is an interdisciplinary field that aims to explain crime and antisocial
behavior by exploring biocultural factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by
sociological theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields
such as genetics, neuropsychology, and evolutionary psychology.
Broken windows theory is a criminological theory that states that visible signs of crime, anti-
social behavior, and civil disorder create an urban environment that encourages further crime and
disorder, including serious crimes. The theory suggests that policing methods that target minor
crimes such as vandalism, public drinking, and fare evasion help to create an atmosphere of order
and lawfulness, thereby preventing more serious crimes.
Differential association theory is the most talked about of the learning theories of deviance.
This theory focuses on how individuals learn to become criminals, but does not concern itself with
why they become criminals. It predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the
balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be
reinforced if social association provides active people in the person's life. Earlier in life the
individual comes under the influence of those of high status within that group, the more likely the
individual to follow in their footsteps.
 Labeling theory is the theory of how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be
determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. It is associated with the
concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping. A stigma is defined as a powerfully negative
label that changes a person's self-concept and social identity.
Rational choice theory adopts a utilitarian belief that humans are reasoning actors who
weigh means and ends, costs and benefits, in order to make a rational choice. This method was
designed by Cornish and Clarke to assist in thinking about situational crime prevention.
Social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social
learning builds self-control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as
antisocial.
Social disorganization theory directly links crime rates to neighborhood ecological
characteristics; a core principle of social disorganization theory that states location matters. In
other words, a person's residential location is a substantial factor shaping the likelihood that that
person will become involved in illegal activities. The theory suggests that, among determinants of
a person's later illegal activity, residential location is as significant as or more significant than the
person's individual characteristics (e.g., age, gender, or race). For example, the theory suggests
that youths from disadvantaged neighborhoods participate in a subculture which approves of
delinquency, and that these youths thus acquire criminality in this social and cultural setting.
 Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that
new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a
cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or
direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.
Strain theory states that society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals
(such as the American dream), though they lack the means. This leads to strain which may lead the
individuals to commit crimes, examples being selling drugs or becoming involved in prostitution, to
gain financial security.
Subcultural theory emerged from the work of the Chicago School on gangs and developed
through the symbolic interactionism school into a set of theories arguing that certain groups or
subcultures in society have values and attitudes that are conducive to crime and violence.
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations
and alludes to people's particular utilization of dialect to make images and normal implications, for
deduction and correspondence with others. In other words, it is a frame of reference to better
understand how individuals interact with one another to create symbolic worlds, and in return,
how these worlds shape individual behaviors.
 Victimology is the study of victimization, including the psychological effects on
victims, relationships between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and
the criminal justice system—that is, the police and courts, and corrections officials—and
the connections between victims and other social groups and institutions, such as the
media, businesses, and social movements.

The Four Elements of Crime

Criminologists insist that there are four necessary elements for a crime to occur. If one of these
elements are not present, then no crime has occurred.
 Law: First, there must be a law to be broken. If the activity is not illegal, then obviously it can't be
criminal.
 Offender: Second, someone must have broken the law. If there is no offender, there is no crime.
 Victim or Target: Third, in order for an act to be criminal, there must be a victim.
 Place: Fourth, the activity or behavior must have occurred in a place. There can be no crime in a
vacuum.
Types of Environmental Crimes
a. Pollution Control
- Air quality
- Water quality
- Waste management
- Environmental clean-up

b. Natural resources
- Species protection
- Water resources
- Mining
- Forestry
- Fisheries

Types of Environmental crimes in the Philippines

a. water pollution
b. deforestation
c. air pollution
d. climate change
Philippine Environmental laws

1. R.A. 9003
2. R.A. 8749
3. R.A. 9275
4. R.A. 9729
5. R.A. 9312
6. P.D. 1586

Areas of Environmental Criminology

GREEN CRIMINOLOGY and BLUE CRIMINOLOGY

I. Introduction to Green Criminology and Green Crime
Green Criminology is the analysis of environmental harms from a criminological perspective, or the
application of criminological thought to environmental issues.
As elsewhere in criminology, this means thinking about offences (what crimes or harms are inflicted on
the environment, and how), offenders (who commits crime against the environment, and why) and victims
(who suffers as a result of environmental damage, and how), and also about responses to environmental
crimes: policing, punishment and crime prevention.
On a more theoretical level, green criminology is interested in the social, economic and political
conditions that lead to environmental crimes; on a philosophical level it is concerned with which types of
harms should be considered as ‘crimes’ and therefore within the remit of a green criminology.

Green Crime is an illegal act which directly harms the 

environment. 
 Types of Green Crime

a. Primary green crimes – are those crimes which constitute harm inflicted on the
environment (and, by extension, those that inflict harm on people because of
damage to the environment – our classic ‘environmental victims’ who suffer health
or other problems when the land, water or air they interact with is polluted,
damaged or destroyed).
 
Categories of Primary green crimes
o Crimes of air pollution
o Crimes of deforestation
o Crimes of species decline and animal rights
o Crimes of water pollution

b. Secondary or “symbiotic green crime” – is crime that grows out of the flouting of
rules that seek to regulate environmental disasters (e.g. state violence against
oppositional groups, hazardous waste and organized crime)
 CRIMINOLOGY DISAGREEMENTS OVER THE CONCEPT OF GREEN CRIME
CRIMINOLOGY
- Argues that “green crime” should be defined
In a narrow sense- thus green crime is defined
As any activity which breaches a law which
Breaches a law which protects the environment
vs GREEN CRIMINOLOGY
- argues that criminologists should study
environmental harms whether or not there
is legislation in place and whether or not criminal
- it takes an ecocentric (environment centered)
approach to crime and criticizes traditional
criminology for being too anthropocentric (human
centered)
CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE
 R.A. 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
It describes solid waste management as a discipline associated with the
control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing
and disposal of solid wastes. This Act provides for a comprehensive ecological
solid waste management program by creating the necessary institutional
mechanisms and incentives, appropriating funds, declaring certain acts
prohibited and providing penalties.

Institutional Mechanism
- The establishment of a National Solid Waste Management Commission
(NSWMC) and Solid Management Board (SWMB) in each local government unit
(LGU) to be represented by public officials, in their ex-officio and private
sector.

- The commission (NSWMC) shall serve as the coordinating body and likewise
develop and implement the National Solid Waste Management Framework.
(SWMB), directed to formulate a 10- year local Ecological Solid Waste
Management Plans instituting an effective and sustainable solid waste
management plan with emphasis on implementation of all feasible re- use,
recycling and composting programs
R.A. 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
Salient Features:

a. Comprehensive Solid Waste Management (Chapter III)

a. WASTE CHARACTERIZATION & SEGREGATION. The solid waste

generated within the area of jurisdiction shall be characterized for
initial source reduction and recycling element of the local waste
management plan. A separate container is required for each type of
waste for on-site collection.

b. SOURCE REDUCTION. This refers to the methods by which the LGUs can
reduce a sufficient amount of solid waste disposed within 5 years. LGU
are expected to divert at least 25% of all solid waste from waste
disposal facilities through the 3 R’s & C.

c. COLLECTION & TRANSPORT OF SOLID WASTE. The geographic

subdivisions are taken into account in the coverage of the solid waste
collection area in every barangay ensuring 100% collection efficiency
within 24 hours from all sources.
R.A. 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
Salient Features:

a. Comprehensive Solid Waste Management (Chapter III)

d. RECYCLING PROGRAM. The DTI, in coordination with other concerned

agencies, is directed to publish an inventory of existing markets for recyclable
materials, product standards for recyclable and recycled materials and a
proposal to stimulate demand for the production of recycled materials and
products. Non- environmentally accepted products shall allowed within 1 year
after public notice as alternatives available to consumers but at cost not
exceeding 10% of the disposable product. The use of non-environmentally
acceptable packaging is strictly prohibited by the Act.

LGUs are mandated to establish Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) in each

barangay or cluster of barangays to receive, sort, process and store
compostable and recyclable materials efficiently.
Residual wastes shall then be transferred to a long- term storage or disposal
facility or sanitary landfill.
R.A. 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
Salient Features:

a. Comprehensive Solid Waste Management (Chapter III)

e. COMPOSTING. The DA shall publish an inventory of existing markets and

demands for composts that is updated annually. These composts intended for
commercial distribution should conform to the standards set by the DA for
organic fertilizers.

f. LOCAL GOVERNMENT SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT. To encourage and

facilitate the development of local plans, NSWMC is mandated to publish
guidelines for identification of areas with common waste management
problems and appropriate units for clustering solid waste management
services.

g. INCENTIVE SCHEME. Pursuant to Omnibus Investment Code, the Act

encourage participation of individuals, private organizations and entities,
including NGOs in developing outstanding and innovative projects,
technologies, processes and techniques in re-use, recycling and reduction.
R.A. 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
Salient Features:

a. Comprehensive Solid Waste Management (Chapter III)

g. INCENTIVE SCHEME. This includes 10- year tax and duty exemption on
imported capital equipment, vehicles, legacies, gifts and donations used for
collection of solid waste and tax credit equivalent to 50 % of the national
internal revenue taxes and custom duties.

b. Penal Provisions
PROHIBITED ACTS.
1. littering, throwing, dumping of waste matters in public places
2. undertaking activities in violation of sanitation operation
3. open burning of solid waste
4. causing non-segregated waste
5. squatting in open dumps and landfills
6. open dumping, burying of biodegradable materials in flood prone
areas
7. unauthorized removal of recyclable material
R.A. 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
Salient Features:

b. Penal Provisions
PROHIBITED ACTS.
8. mixing of source separated recyclable material with other solid
waste
9. establishment or operation of open dumps
10. manufacturing, distributing, using and importing consumer
products that are non-environmentally friendly materials
11. importing toxic wastes misrepresented as “recyclable” or “with
recyclable content”
12. transporting and dumping in bulk in areas other than facility
centers
13. site preparation, construction, expansion or operation of waste
management facilities without an Environmental Compliance
Certificate
14. construction of establishment within 200 meters from dumpsite or
sanitary land fill
15. operation of waste disposal facility on any aguifer, groundwater
reservoir or watershed area
AIR POLLUTION
Atmosphere as a Resource
 Atmospheric Composition
 Nitrogen 78.08%
 Oxygen 20.95%
 Argon 0.93%
 Carbon dioxide 0.04%
 Ecosystem services
 Blocks UV radiation
 Moderates the climate
 Redistributes water in the
hydrologic cycle
Types and Sources of Air Pollution
 Air Pollution
 Chemicals added to the atmosphere by natural
events or human activities in high enough
concentrations to be harmful
 Two categories
 Primary Air Pollutant
 Harmful
substance that is emitted directly into the
atmosphere
 Secondary Air Pollutant
 Harmful substance formed in the atmosphere when a
primary air pollutant reacts with substances normally found
in the atmosphere or with other air pollutants
Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution
 Two main sources
 Transportation

 Industry

 Intentional forest
fires is also high
Urban Air Pollution
 Photochemical Smog
 Brownish-orange haze formed by chemical reactions involving
sunlight, nitrogen oxide, and hydrocarbons
Carbon Oxides and Hydrocarbons
 Carbon Oxides
 Gases carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide
(CO2)
 Greenhouse gases
 Hydrocarbons
 Diverse group of organic compounds that contain
only hydrogen and carbon (ex: CH4- methane)
 Some are related to photochemical smog and
greenhouse gases
Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides
 Nitrogen Oxides
 Gasesproduced by the chemical interactions
between atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen at high
temperature
 Problems
 Greenhouse gases
 Cause difficulty breathing
 Sulfur Oxides
 Gasesproduced by the chemical interactions
between sulfur and oxygen
 Causes acid precipitation
Health Effects of Air Pollution
 Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate material
 Irritate respiratory tract and impair ability of lungs to
exchange gases
 Nitrogen Dioxides
 Causes airway restriction
 Carbon monoxide
 Binds with iron in blood hemoglobin
 Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness, death
 Ozone
 Causes burning eyes, coughing, and chest discomfort
Children and Air Pollution

 Greater health threat to children than adults

 Air pollution can restrict lung development
 Children breath more often than adults
 Children who live in high ozone areas are more
likely to develop asthma
CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999
R.A 8749
MINING
What is Mining?

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or

other geological materials from the earth, usually
from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer
deposit. These deposits form a mineralized package
that is of economic interest to the miner.
Four (4) Main Mining Methods:

1. Underground mines - are more expensive and are often used to

reach deeper deposits.

2. Surface mines - are typically used for more shallow and less valuable
deposits.

3. Placer mining - is used to sift out valuable metals from sediments in

river channels, beach sands, or other environments.

4. In-situ mining - which is primarily used in mining uranium, involves

dissolving the mineral resource in place then processing it at the surface
without moving rock from the ground.
THREE MOST COMMON TYPES OF SURFACE MINING:

1. Open-Pit - involves mining minerals or ore that can be found near the surface
layer of the site. That being said, some quarries can be over 1000 meters deep.
This form of mining doesn’t require tunnelling into the earth and is a simple
method of mining that yields high production rates.
2. Strip Mining - is the practice of mining a seam of mineral, by first
removing a long strip of overlying soil and rock (the overburden). It is most
commonly used to mine coal and lignite (brown coal). Strip mining is only practical
when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface.
3. Quarrying - Quarrying is the cutting or digging of stone, and related
materials, from an excavation site or pit and it usually leaves behind a large hole in
the ground.
Purpose:

Mined materials are needed to construct roads and

hospitals, to build automobiles and houses, to make
computers and satellites, to generate electricity,
and to provide the many other goods and services
that consumers enjoy. In addition, mining is
economically important to producing regions and
countries.
Effects of Mining:

Water pollution, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion and

pollution, and formation of sink holes are
among the worst effects of the mining industry
on the environment. 
Mining adversely affects the environment by inducing loss of
biodiversity, soil erosion, and contamination of surface water,
groundwater, and soil. Mining can also trigger the formation of
sinkholes. The leakage of chemicals from mining sites can also have
detrimental effects on the health of the population living at or
around the mining site.
Environmental Impacts Of Mining

 Air Pollution

 Water Pollution

 Damage To Land

 Loss Of Biodiversity
ADVANTAGES:

 It increase your Economic and Financial benefit.

 It provide employment in the community.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Damage both under ground and surface environment.

 Danger posed to men at work ( engage in mining).
RAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, UTILIZATION, AND

Related Laws:

 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7942 (March 3, 1995)

AN ACT INSTITUTING A NEW SYSTEM OF MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION,
DEVELOPMENT, UTILIZATION, AND CONSERVATION

This shall be known as the “Philippine Mining Act of 1995”

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7942 -Is the governing law that regulates mineral resources
development in the country. -One of the primary objectives of this act is to
revitalize the ailing Philippine mining industry by providing fiscal reforms and
incentives and maintaining the viable inventory of minerals to sustain the industry.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7076
June 27, 1991
AN ACT CREATING A PEOPLE'S SMALL-SCALE
MINING PROGRAM AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

This Act shall be known as the

"People's
Small-scale Mining Act of 1991.“

Section 2. Declaration of Policy. – It is

hereby declared of the State to promote,
develop, protect and rationalize viable
small-scale mining activities in order to
generate more employment opportunities
and provide an equitable sharing of the
nation's wealth and natural resources, giving
due regard to existing rights as herein
provided.
How can mining become more
environmentally sustainable?
 Reduce inputs - By diverting surface water and pumping groundwater,
mines can reduce both the quantity and quality of water available
downstream for aquatic ecosystems and other use.
With regard to energy, a mining company can look into alternative
energy sources such as solar or wind power. By reducing the energy usage, a
mine can reduce greenhouse gases and extend the life of fossil fuel reserves.
You will also be able to reduce the cost to produce the product and thus reduce
the cost of the commodity itself.
 Reduce outputs - Mining produces materials such as solid waste, mine water and
air particles, all of which vary in their makeup and potential for environmental
contamination. Waste management plans are required in order to prevent soil, air and
water pollution. These plans are also in place to appropriately store the large volumes
of waste produced at mine sites. To reduce waste output, mines can look at using
sustainable equipment.

 Proper waste disposal - Correct waste disposal is vital to curbing the

environmental impact of mines, as some mining companies do not dispose of their
waste according to guidelines. Companies can invest in equipment that helps in
turning waste into reusable material, as well as adopting policies that allow for a more
eco-friendly waste disposal routine.
 Improving the manufacturing process - The efficiency of the mining
process can often leave much to be desired, but improving the efficiency of this process
can help towards lessening the environmental impact. This also allows companies to
regulate processes which may be lacking in environmental friendliness.
 Close and reclaim shut-down mines - Allowing shut-down mines to
continue to stand open is a hazard not only to the community but to the environment
too. Often these mines still have hazardous waste on the property which can leak into
the soil and water table or come into contact with the surrounding humans and animals
living close by.
 Replenishing the environment - This simple act can go a long way towards
increasing the environmental sustainability of mining. There are simple solutions that can
be followed, such as replenishing native soils and grasses, cleaning excess waste, proper
waste removal, site inspections and replanting trees and natural forestry. By restoring
the environment around the mine, the mining companies are contributing to positive
environmental change, rather than making the environment more difficult to live in. The
reclamation process of a shut-down mine should include such steps as removing
hazardous materials, reshaping the land, planting native grasses or trees and restoring
the topsoil.
 Final words - In order to lessen their impact on the
environment, mining companies should look into using
sustainable equipment and waste disposal procedures. They
should also consider replenishing the local environment as
often as possible, which will make the surrounding area
habitable and able to return to a natural state once the mine
has closed. Reducing both input and output of the mining
process can also help to reduce the negative impact that
mines have on the environment.
How do we prevent repeat accidents at our mines?

• Make safety a top priority. ...

• Set a goal to eliminate repeat accidents. ...
• Train as if their lives depended on it—because they
do! ...
• Reinforce safe behavior. ...
• Don't use discipline without also offering help. ...
• Emphasize hazard detection and reporting. ...
• Investigate every incident.
The once spectacular primary forests of the Philippines are now a relic of a bygone
era. What little primary forest does remain exists on the island of Palawan, the last
sanctuary for the Palawan eagle.

Between 1990 and 2005 the Philippines lost a third of its forest cover, according to
FAO estimates, but the country's deforestation is down since its peak in the 1980s and
1990s.

Widespread logging was responsible for much of the historical forest loss in the
Philippines. Despite government bans on timber harvesting following severe flooding in
the late 1980s and early 1990s, illegal logging continues today.

After temporarily lifting the log export ban in the late 1990s, the government has
increasingly tried to crack down on timber smuggling and forest degradation. Additional
threats to Philippine forests come from legal and illegal mining operations — which
also cause pollution and have been linked to violent conflict — agricultural fires,
collection of fuelwood, and rural population expansion. In recent years, deforestation
has been increasingly blamed for soil erosion, river siltation, flooding, and drought;
environmental awareness is now rising in the country.
The DENR, which is the primary government agency
responsible for the overall management of
the country’s forest resources, suffers from a number of
institutional weaknesses. Among these
are:
• unstable policies and weak policy implementation;
• limited resources and institutional capacity;

• poor monitoring and evaluation; and

• the involvement of some of its staff in illegal activities
and corrupt practices.
These factors promote poor forest governance and hence
contribute to the continuing degradation
of the country’s forestlands and resources.