MODULE 1-5

I. Title: Crim. 1 (Introduction to Criminology)

II. Overview:
This module discuss about the overview of criminology, the criminologist and privileges. And
also the crime theories of crime causation and people behind the different schools of thought in
criminology.

III. Objectives:
After you finish this module you will able to:
1. Define Criminology.
2. Understand what are Criminologist and its privileges.
3. Know the different school of thoughts in criminology and people behind it.
4. Know the different causation of crimes.

IV. Discussion:

OVERVIEW OF CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminals, and criminal behavior. Criminologists
scientifically study the following: the nature and extent of crime; patterns of criminality;
explanations and causes of crime and criminal behavior; and control of crime and criminal behavior.
(Glick, 1995).

The term “Criminology” (from the Latin-crimen, accusation, and Greek-logia, study) was coined in
1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia (Wikipedia)

Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within its
scope the process of making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting towards the breaking of laws…
The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general knowledge regarding the
process of law, crime, and treatment or prevention ( Sutherland & Cressey as cited by Adler, Mueller
& Laufer, 1995)

In its broadest meaning, criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crimes, criminals, and the
effort of society to prevent and repress them. This means that criminology is an interdisciplinary field
of inquiry- that is , it draws knowledge from other disciplines such as biology, psychology, psychiatry,
sociology, law, medicine, statistics, economics, and political science in order to provide an integrated
approach in the study of crimes and criminal behaviors.

In a narrower sense, criminology is the scientific study of crimes and criminal behavior. In a key
sense, this it the central aspect of the definition of criminology. It specifies the very essence of this
course. This means that criminology is primarily concerned with knowing and understanding the
cause of crime and criminal behavior. It seeks to comprehend the reasons behind the commission of
crime. Furthermore, criminology is a science in itself. It applies scientific methods of inquiry to the
study of crimes and criminal behavior. Therefore, criminology is not commons sense nor guesswork,
but rather, the scientific study of crime. The knowledge obtained through criminological research is
based on empirical evidence.

Other definitions of criminology include:

Criminology is the science which studies crime, forms of criminal behavior, the causes of crime, the
Definition of criminality, and the societal reaction to criminal activity. Related areas of inquiry may
include juvenile deliquency, victimology (the study of crime victims), theories of prevention, policing,
and corrections (Sousa, 2008).

Criminology, on the other hand is closer to psychology than it is to criminal justice, because it studies
the minds and behaviors of criminals as opposed to their criminal actions (Sousa, 2008)

Principal Divisions of Criminology ( Tradio, 1999)

The study of criminology has three principal divisions:

1. Criminal Etiology- an attempt at scientific analysis of the causes of crimes.

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2. Sociology of Law- an attempt at scientific analysis of the conditions under which penal or criminal
laws develop as a process of formal social control.
3. Penology - concerned with the rehabilitation and treatment of offenders.

Three Principal Divisions of Criminology (Edwin Sutherland)

1. Sociology of law
2. Scientific analysis of the causes of crime
3. Crime control

Three Components of Criminology (Clarence Ray Jeffery)

1. Detection of the offender

2. Treatment of the offender
3. Explaining crime and criminal behavior

Purpose of Criminology

The purpose of criminology is to offer well-researched and objective answers to four basic questions:

1. Why do crime rates vary?

2. Why do individuals differ as to criminality?
3. Why is there variation in reactions to crime?
4. What are the possible means of controlling criminality?

Goals of Studying Criminology

The study of criminology seeks to achieve the following goals:

1. To describe criminal behavior

2. To understand criminal behavior
3. To predict criminal behavior
4. To control criminal behavior

Various Studies and Sciences Related to Criminology

Criminology covers the following studies and sciences:

1. Law
2. Sociology
3. Psychology
4. Medicine
5. Chemistry
6. Public Administration
7. Education
8. Theology
9. Economics

Agencies and Sectors Associated to Criminology

Criminology consists of the activities of the following offices and sectors, public and private:

1. Legislative bodies and lawmakers

2. Law enforcement agencies
3. Courts and prosecution
4. Correctional institutions
5. Educational institutions/schools
6. Public charitable and social agencies
7. Public welfare agencies
8. Non-government organizations
9. The family and the home
10. The church
11. Private charitable and welfare institutions
12. Civic clubs and organizations

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13. Print media, radio and televisions

Nature of Criminology

Generally, criminology cannot be considered a science because it has not yet acquired universal
validity and acceptance. It is not stable, and it varies from one time and place to another. However,
considering that science is the systematic and objective study of social phenomenon and other
bodies of knowledge, criminology is a science in itself when under the following nature.

1. It is an applied science.

The findings or knowledge obtained in the study of crimes and criminal behaviors is used to resolved
the crimes problem and treatment of criminals. In other words, criminologists investigate crimes in
order to generate practical solutions to the problem.

Applied science focuses on the practical application of the principles discovered in basic science.
Natural Science, on the other hand, is concerned with the physical nature or environment. In the
study of the causes of crimes, natural sciences such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology may
be applied. In like manner, applied sciences such as chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics,
ballistics, polygraphy, legal medicine, and questioned document examination may be utilized in
crime detection.

2. It is a social science.

In as much as crime is a social creation that exists in a society being a social phenomenon, its study
must be considered a part of social science. This means the study of criminology includes not only
the study of crimes and criminal behavior but also the reaction of society towards crime and criminal
behavior.

Social science refers to the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social
world objectively. It is the study of the various aspects of human society.

3. It is dynamic.

Criminology changes as social condition changes. It is related with the advancement of other
sciences that have been applied to it.

This further means that criminology is relative. The study of crime varies from place to place,
generation to generation, and from culture to culture. Behaviors that may be regarded as deviant or
crime in one culture may be conformist and highly valued in another. Also, those acts defined as
criminal today may no longer be considered as criminal acts in the coming years.

The study of crime changes when criminal laws, values, beliefs, social structure, and other social
factors change. Remember that crime is a legal term. A behavior can be labeled as crime only when
it is defined by law as such. Thus, the study of crime changes when its definition changes.

4. It is interdisciplinary.

Many disciplines are involved in the study of crimes and criminal behavior. Among them are
sociology, psychology, psychiatry, economics, political science, and so on.

5. It is nationalistic

The study of crimes must be in relation with the existing criminal law within the territory or country.
Finally, the question as to whether an act is a crime is dependent on the criminal law of a state.

Scope of Criminology

The study of criminology covers the following scope:

1. Study of the origin and development of criminal law or penal law.

2. Study of the causes of crimes and development of criminals.

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3. Study of the different factors that enhance the development of criminal behavior such as:
A. Criminal Demography - study of the relationship between criminality and population.
B. Criminal Epidemiology- study of criminality in relation to spatial distribution in a community.
C. Criminal Ecology - Study of the relationship between environment and criminality.
D. Criminal Physical Anthropology- study of criminality in relation to physical constitution of men.
E. Criminal Psychology- study of human mind and behavior in relation to criminality.
F. Criminal Psychiatry- study of mental and behavioral disorders in relation to criminality.
G. Victimology- study of the role of the victim in crime commission.

4. Study of the various measures and methods accepted by society in cases of violation of criminal
law such as:
A. The detection of crimes
B. The arrest or apprehension of criminals
C. The prosecution of suspected law violators
D. The conviction of criminals in judicial proceedings
E. The imprisonment, correction, rehabilitation of the criminal convicted of a crime
F. The enforcement of laws, decrees, rules, and regulations
G. The administration of the police and other law enforcement agencies
H. The maintenane of recreationa facilities and other auxialiary services to prevent the development
of crimes and criminal behavior.

Major Areas of Study in Criminology

1. Criminal Sociology- includes the fundamentals of criminology; juvenile delinquency; human

behavior and crisis management; ethics and community relations; and criminal justice system.

2. Criminal Law and Jurisprudence- covers the study of the Revised Penal Code and its amendments,
and other laws that are penal in nature; criminal procedure; and the law on evidence.

3. Law Enforcement Administration- embraces police organization; operational planning; patrol;

industrial security management; intelligence and secret service; police records and personnel
management.

4. Crime Detection, Investigation and Prevention- consists of criminal, special and arson investigation;
vice control; traffic management and accident investigation; and police report writing.

5. Criminalistics- covers the following areas:

A. Dactyloscopy- the science of fingerprinting
B. Police photography- study of the black and white and colored photograph (both film-based
photography and digital photography)
C. Polygraphy- the science of lie detection examination
D. Ballistics- study of firearms and bullets
E. Questioned document examination- study of disputed documents
F. Forensic medicine- application of medical science to elucidate legal problems
G. Forensic chemistry- application of chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in
connection with the administration of justice.

6. Corrections- deals with the institution and non-institution correctional system of approach.

Criminologist Defined

Criminologist is any person who is a graduate of the Degree of Criminology, who has passed the
examination for criminologists and is registered as such by the Board (Section 22, R.A 6506- An Act
Creating the Board of Examiners for Criminologists in the Philippines and for Other Purposes.)

Criminologist is a professional who studies crime, criminals, criminal behavior, and efforts to control
crime (Reid, 1997).

Criminologist is one whose is trained in the field of Criminology, Also, he or she is one who studies
crime, and criminals, and criminal behavior (Schmalleger, 1996).

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Practice of Criminology Defined

A person is deemed to be engaged in the practice of Criminology if he holds himself out to the public
in any of the following capacities; (Section 23, RA 6506)

A. As a professor, instructor or teacher in Criminology in any University, College or school duly

recognized by the government, and teaches any of the following subjects:

1. Law Enforcement Administration

2. Criminalistics
3. Correctional Administration
4. Criminal Sociology and allied subjects, and
5. Other technical and specialized subjects in the Criminology curriculum provided by the
Department of Education (now Commission on Higher Education)

B. As a law enforcement administrator, executive, adviser, consultant or agent in any government or

private agency.

C. As a technician in dactyloscopy, ballistics, questioned documents, police photography, lie

detection, forensic chemistry, and other scientific aspects of crime detection.
D. As correctional administrator, executive supervisor, worker or officer in any correctional and penal
institution.

E. As counselor, expert, adviser, researcher in any government or private agency, on any aspects of
criminal research or project involving the causes of crime, juvenile delinquency, treatment of
offenders, police operations, law enforcement administration, scientific criminal investigation or
public welfare administration.

Privileges Given to Certified Criminologists

Pursuant to Section 24 of RA 6506, all certified criminologists shall be exempt from taking any other
entrance or qualifying government or civil service examinations and shall be considered civil service
eligible to the following government positions:

A. Dactylographer
B. Ballistician
C. Questioned document examiner
D. Correctional officer
E. Law enforcement photographer
F. Lie detection examiner
G. Probation officer
H. Agents in any law enforcement agency
I. Security officer
J. Criminal investigator
K. Police laboratory technician

Career Opportunity for Criminology Graduates

A myriad of job opportunities await criminology graduates. Most of these careers would be found in
government agencies as follows:

1. Law Enforcement Officers/ Intelligence Officers/ Investigators

A. Philippine National Police (Maritime, Hi-way Patrol, Aviation, or Airport), as personnel and police
officers
B. Philippine Ports Authority (PPA), as port police
C. Bureau of Customs (Customs Intelligence and Investigation Service)
D. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI), as special investigators (SI)
E. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA), as agents
F. Department of Finance (Anti-Money Laundering and Lifestyle Check)
G. National Police Commission (NAPOLCOM), as investigators
H. Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP), as fire officers and investigators
I. Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC), as coast guards
J. Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)

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K. Other government branches with Intelligence and Investigative Units.

2. Members and Officers of Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)

A. Philippine Army
B. Philippine Navy
C. Philippine Marines
D. Philippine Air Force

3. Forensic Specialist or Experts

A. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)
B. Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory
C. Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) - State Colleges and Universities (SUCs) and Private
Universities and Colleges (PUCs)

4. Personnel and Officers of Correctional Institutions

A. Bureau of Corrections (Department of Justice/DOJ), as prison officer or guards
B. Bureau of Jail Management and Penology (BJMP), as jail officer or guards
C. Parole and Probation Administration, as probation officers and as parole officers (DOJ)
D. Provincial Jail under the Office of the Governor in every province, as provincial jail officers or
guards
5. Judiciary
A. Supreme Court, as sheriffs
6. State Colleges and Universities (SUCs), Private Universities and Colleges (PUCs) and Specialized
Training Institutions (STIs) such as the Philippine Military Academy (PMA), Philippine National Police
Academy (PNPA), Philippine Public Safety College (PPSC) as:
A. Administrators
B. Instructors
C. Training Officers
D. Laboratory Technicians

7. Maritime Industry
A. Sea Marshall Officer in private vessels, both national and international

SCHOOL OF THOUGHT IN CRIMINOLOGY

Classical Criminology

Cesare Beccaria ( 1738-1794) - one of the reformers and pioneered the development of a systematic
understanding of why people committed crime. Believed that the behavior of the people with
regards to their choice of action is based in hedonism.

Hedonism- pleasure and pain principle: human being choose those actions that give pleasure and
avoid those that brings pain.

More over, punishment should be assigned to each crime in a degree that results in more pain than
pleasure for those who commit the forbidden acts, therefore the “punishment should fit the crime.”

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) - A contemporary of Becarria. Like Beccaria, he was concerned with
achieving “the greatest happines of the greatest number.” he referred to his philosophy of social
control as utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism- all human actions are calculated in accordance with their likelihood of bringing
happiness (pleasure) or unhappiness (pain).

People weigh the probabiilities of present and future pleasures against those of present and future
pain.

The Classical School of Criminology’s concept of human nature as governed by the doctrine of “Free
Will” and rational behavior.

NEOCLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY

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The neoclassical school, which flourished in the 19 th century, had the same basis as the classical
school a belief in free will. But the neoclassical criminologist believed that classical approach was too
harsh and unjust. It believed that certain factors such as insanity will inhibit the exercise of free will.

Highlight of Neoclassical Criminology is the exemption of the following person in law.

- Mentally ill or Insanity
- Children under seven (7) years old

POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY

The positivist school originated in the 19th century in the context of the “scientific revolution”.
The positivist rejected the harsh legalism of the classical school and substituted the concept ot “free
will” with the doctrine of determinism.

Determinism- the doctrine that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by
causes external to the will. Some philosophers have taken determinism to imply that individual
human beings have no free will and cannot be held morally responsible for their actions.

The positivist school presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors
outside of the individual’s control. The scientific method was introduced and applied to the study of
human behavior.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)- considered the founder of positivist school and sociology.
He applied scientific methods in the study of society, from where he adopted the word sociology.

The positivist school was composed of several Italians;

Cesare Lombroso (founded the Italian School of Thought)
Enrico Ferri
Rafaelle Garofalo

They where called the “unholy three” by the religious leaders during the time of positivism because of
their belief in evolution as contrasted to biblical interpretation of origin of man and woman.
Eventually, they have been called the “holy three of criminology” because their emergence
symbolized clearly that the era of faith was over and the scientific age had begun.

Positivism can be broken up into three segments which include biological, psychological and social
positivism.

Biological Positivism

Cesare Lombroso - Founder of Italian School of Criminology, widely known as the “Father of Modern
Criminology”.

Lombroso’s major contribution to positivist criminology is the following:

1. The theory of atavism. Lombroso had the opinion that criminals were developed from primitive or
subhuman individuals characterized by some inferior mental and physical characteristics such as
receding hairline, forehead wrinkles, bumpy face, broad noses, fleshy lips, sloping shoulders, long
arms, and pointy fingers. He called this condition atavism.

2. The application of experimental or scientific method to the study of the criminal. Lombroso spent
endless hours measuring criminally insane persons and epileptic’s skills.

3. The development of a criminal typology. Although Lombroso’s system of classification is

considered crude and not adopted today, he still attemped to categorized criminals. They are as
follows:

A. Born criminals - these refers to individuals who are born with a genetic predilection toward
criminality.
B. Epileptic criminals - these are criminals who commit crime because they are affected by epilepsy.
C. Insane criminals - these are those who commit crimes due to abnormalities or psychological
disorders. These criminals are not criminal from birth; they become criminal as a result of some
changes in their brains which interfere with their ability to distinguish between right and wrong.
D. Occasional criminals - these are criminals who commit crime due to insignificant reasons that
push them to do at a given occasion.

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Lombroso also identified the various types of occasional criminals as:
A. Pseudo criminals - these individuals are not real criminals. They have neither any inborn tendency
towards crime nor are they under the influence of any bad crime-inducing habits. They do something
criminal on account of acute pressure of circumstances that leave them with no choice. An example
would be person who kills in self-defense.
B. Criminaloids - the term “criminaloids” (sometimes called criminaloid) means “like a criminal” or
“having resemblance with the criminal.” From this, it can be said that criminaloids are not born
criminals but non-criminals who have adopted criminal activity due to pressure of circumstances and
less physical stamina of self control. The nature of their crimes is not very grave.
C. Habitual criminals - They have no organice criminal tendency, but in the course of their lives they
have developed some foul habits that force them into criminality. Some attributing factors are poor
parenting and education, or contact with other criminals.
D. Passionate criminals - These are individuals who are easily influenced by great emotions like fit of
anger.

4. The belief in the indeterminate sentence. Penalties should be indeterminate so that those other
“born criminals who are incorrigible could be worked with and rehabilitated.

5. The application of statistical techniques to criminology. Although crude and with the use of
questionable control groups, statistical techniques were used by Lombroso to make criminological
predictions.

Enrico Ferri - a student of Lombroso, best knows of Lombroso’s associates. His greatest contribution
was his attack on the classical doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should be held
morally responsible for their crimes because they must have made a rational decision to commit
those acts. On contrary, responsible because they did not choose to commit crimes but rather were
driven to commit them by conditions of their lives.

Raffaele Garofolo - Influenced by Lombroso’s theory of atavistic stigmata, which he found some
shortcomings, he traced the roots of criminal behavior, not to physical features, but to their
psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies.”

Garofalo classified criminals as:

1. Murderers - those who are satisfied from vengeance or revenge
2. Violent Criminals - those who commit very serious crimes
3. Thieves - those who commit crimes against property
4. Lascivious criminals - those who commit crimes against chastity

Sociological Positivism

Adolphe Quentelet & Andre Michel Guerry - They started Chartographic School of Criminology in
which they worked independently on the relation of crime statistics to such factors as poverty, age,
sex, race, climate, and other demographic factors. Both scholars concluded that society, not the
decisions of individual offenders, was responsible for criminal behavior.

Gabriel Tarde - His major contribution in the study of the cause of crime was his concept of the
criminal as a professional type. He believed that most criminals went through a process of training
before finally becoming criminal. Moreover, it was an accident of birth or chance that put them in an
atmosphere of crime.

Emile Durkheim - accourding to Durkheim, crime is an inevitable aspect of society. It could disappear
only if all members of society had the same values, and such standardization is neither possible nor
desirable, He called this concept anomie (Greek, anomos, without norms), a breakdown of social
disorder as a result of a loss of standards and values.

Comparison of the Classical and Positive Criminology

The classical and positivist schools had an important impact on the emergence and development of
criminology. The basic differences between these schools of thought are listed in the following tables
(Reid, 1997)

Classical Criminology Positivist Criminology

Legal definition of crime Rejection of legal definition

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Let the punishment fit the crime
Doctrine of free will
Death penalty for some offenses
Anecdotal method - empirical research method
Definite sentence
Let the punishment fit the crime
Doctrine of determinism
Abolition of the death penalty
Empirical research, inductive method
Indeterminate sentence

LACASSAGNE SCHOOL

Lombroso’s Italian School was rivaled, in France, by Alexandre Lacassagne and his school of thought,
based in Lyon and influential from 1885 to 1914. The Lacassagne School rejected Lombroso’s theory
of “criminal type” and of “born criminals” and stressed the importance of social factors. However,
contrary to criminological tendencies influenced by Durkheim’s social determinism, it did not reject
biological factors. Indeed, Lacassagne created an original synthesis of both tendencies, influenced by
positivism,phrenology and hygienism, which alleged a direct influence of the social environment on
the brain. Furthermore, Lacassagne criticized the lack of efficiency of prison, insisted on social
responsibilities toward crime and on political voluntariesm as a solution to crime, and thus advocates
harsh penalties for those criminals thought to be unredeemable (“recidivist”), for example by
supporting the 1895 law on penal colonies or opposing the abolition of the death penalty in 1906.

Hans Eysenck (1977), a British psychologist, claimed that psychological factors such as extraversion
and neurotism made a person more likely to commit criminal acts. He alson included a psychoticism
dimension that includes traits similar to the psychopathic profile, developed by Hervey Cleckley, and
later Robert Hare. Eysenck also based his model on early parental socialization of the child. His
approach bridges the gap between biological explanations and environmental or social learning-
based approaches ( See e.g social psychologist B.F. Skinner [1938], Albert Bandura [1973] and the
topic “nature vs nurture”.)

CHICAGO SCHOOL

The Chicago School arose in the early twentieth century, through the work of Robert Park, Ernest
Burgess, and other urban sociologist at the University of Chicago. In the 1920’s, Park and Burgess
identified concentric zones that often exist as cities grow, including the “zone in transition” which
was identified as most volatile and subject to disorder. In the 1940s, Henry Mckay and Clifford Shaw
focused on juvenile delinquents finding that they were concentrated in the zome of transition.

Chicago School sociologists adopted a social ecology approach to studying cities, and postulated that
urban neighborhoods with high levels of poverty often experience breakdown in the social structure
and institutions such as family and schools. This results in social disorganization, which reduces the
ability of these institutions to control behavior and creates an environment ripe for deviant behavior.

Other researchers suggested an added social psychological link. For one, Edwin Sutherland
suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced criminals that they may
associate with.

CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY

Criminal Etiology, in simpler terms, is a study of the causes of crimes. This chapter discusses the
different explanation to criminality. They include the various theories (classical or modern) and
factors (biological, psychological, psychiatric, sociological, geographical, and criminogenic) that
account from criminal behavior of man. Basically, this section provides a concise discussion of the
theories of crime causation.

EARLIER EXPLANATIONS OF THE EXISTENCE OF CRIMINALITY

The following concepts provide a scenario on how criminality was dealt with in the early times:

1. Crime is caused by demon (Paganism Era). Men violate social norms and religious practices
because they are possessed by demons or evil spirits.

2. Crime is caused by divine will. Men manifest criminal behavior because they are sinful. God is the
offended party when they commit crimes, and the punishment is in the form of plagues,
earthquakes, or other forms of desolation. This way, God’s anger is lessened.

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3. Crime is a matter of personal offense and retribution (Ancient World, Early Greek Law).
The earliest form of punishment was private revenge, in which the victim or the victim’s kin
retaliated for injury and the community did not interfere. This often resulted in vendetta or blood
feuds that could continue for many years until one or the other family was completely wiped out.

The earliest broad laws reflective of the retributive system are those found in the Babylonian Code of
Hammurabi (1790 B.C). These laws were based on “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” concept of
retribution. However, the exacting for a penalty corresponding to the offense was observed only
when the victim was of the upper or freemen group. When a freeman offended a slave (serf), he
might make justice by a small payment of money. Slaves had no legal rights.

4. Crime is equal to sin (Middle Ages). Crimes and sins were treated as the same substance and
nature. The state claimed that it was acting in the place of God when it inflicted horrible
punishments such as ostracism, stoning, exile from the community, burning, decapitation, and
capital punishment.

In the Twelve Tables (450 B.C.) of the Roman law, intentional homicide, setting fire to a dwelling or
harvesting crop, treason, and parricide were punished by death.

Another cruel punishment method was trial by ordeal or torture in which the accused was subjected
to difficult and painful test as means of extorting confessions. The belief was that an innocent person
(protected by God) would emerge unharmed while a guilty person would die a painful death.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINALITY

The biological explanation of criminality assume that individuals vary in behavior because of their
biological structural differences. These structural differences may be the result of chromosomes,
genes, chemistry, hormones, or even body type. The biological theories suppose that something is
happening inside the person, often beyond his control to cause criminal behavior, and that criminal
may be born, not made.

Heredity and Crimes

Early biological theorists believed that criminality was an inherited traits passed on in the genes.
Although this view has long lost popularity, many modern criminologists are still interested in the
role of genetics.

The methods employed to test the proposition that criminality was inherited are the following:

A. Family Studies

In this method, the family known to have many criminals was compared with a family free of
criminals.

Some studies were conducted to prove that children of criminal parents are more likely to become
law violators than children of conventional parents. They are as follows:

1. The Study of the Juke Family (Richard Dugdale)

The Juke Family consisted of 6 girls, some of whom were illegitimate. One of them, Ada Juke, was
known as “The Mother of Criminals.” Dugdale traced the 1,200 descendants for 75 years and found
280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderers, 40 other criminals, 40 with sexual diseases, 300 infants
prematurely born, 50 prostitutes, and 30 who were prosecuted for bastardy.

2. The Study of the Kallikak Family (Henry Goddard)

Martin Kallikak was an American Revolutionary war soldier. Whle stationed in small village, he met a
feeble-minded girl and had illicit relations with her. About 489 descendants from this lineage were
traced which included 143 feeble-minded and 46 normal. Thirty-six were illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3
criminals, 8 kept brothels, and 82 died in infancy.

3. The Study of Sir Jonathan Edward’s Family

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Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the colonial period. When his family tree was
traced, none of the descendants was found to be criminal. Rather, many became presidents of the
United States, governors, members of the Supreme Court, famous writers, preachers, and teachers.

Contemporary sociologist also had their share in analyzing heredity and criminality. Some of their
studies are as follows:

A study led by David Farrington revealed that a significant number of delinquent youths had criminal
fathers. In his other study, he found that one type of parental deviance, bullying, may be both inter-
and intra-generational. Bullies have children whol bully others, and these “second generation
bullies” grow up to become the fathers of children who are also bullies, in a never-ending cycle.

B. Twin Behavior Studies

The logic of this method is that if there is greater similarity in behavior between identical twins that
between fraternal twins, the behavior must be due to heredity.

In the 1920s, Lange studied 30 pairs of same-sex twins - 13 identical and 17 fraternal twins. He
found out that one member of each pair was a known criminal. Moreover, both twins in 10 of the 13
pairs of fraternal twins were both criminal. This showed a significant relationship between the
criminal activities of identical twins and a much lower association between those of fraternal twins.

A famous study of twin behavior is the Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Experts conclusion
was that twins are alike in personality regardless of how they are reared, that environment induces
little or no personality resemblance on twin pairs.

C. Adoption Studies

This method compared the criminal records of adopted children who were adopted at relatively
early age with the criminal records of adopted parents. Several studies indicate that some
relationship exists between biological parents behavior and the behavior of their children. In the
most significant study, Hutchings and Mednick found that the criminality of the biological father was
a strong predictorr of the child’s criminal behavior. An analysis of Swedish adopyees also found that
genetic factors are highly significant accounting for 59 percent of the variation in their petty crime
rates. Boys who had criminal parents were significantly more likel to violate the law.

D. The XYY “Supermale” Studies

The role of chromosomes in crime causation has been analyzed in recent studies on human genetics.
The first well-known study of this tyoe was undertaken by Patricia A. Jacobs, a British researcher who
examined 197 Scottish prisoners for chromosomal abnormalities through a relatively simple blood
test known as karyotyping. Twelve of the group displayed chromosomes which were unusual, and 7
were found to have an XYY chromosome. “Normal males possess an XY choromosome structure
while “normal females are XX. Some other unusual combinations might be XXX, wherein a female
genetic makeup contains an extra X or female chromosome. Klinefelter’s males (with an extra X
chromosome) often are possessed of make genitalia, but are frequently sterile and with evident
breast enlargement and intellectual retardation. The XYY male, however, whose incidence in the
prison population was placed at around 3.5% by Jacobs, was quickly identified as potentially violent
and termed a supermale.

Studies of XYY males tend to show that supermales:

 Are taller than the average male, often standing 6’1” or more.
 Suffer from acne or skin disorders.
 Are of less than average intelligence.
 Are overrepresented in prisons and mental hospitals.
 Come from families with less history of crime or mental illness.

Physiognomy

Physiognomy is the study of facial features of a person in relation to his criminal behavior. This is
done to determine whether the shape of the ears, nose and eyes, and the distanes between them
were associated with anti-social behavior. The first to use this approache was Beccaria in his Crime
and Punishment. It was later revived by Swiss theologian Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801).

11
Phrenology or Craniology

Phrenology or craniology is the study of the external formation of the skull indicating the
confromation of the brain and the development of its various parts in relation to the behavior of the
criminal. This is associated with the work of Franz Joseph Gall.

Physiology or Somatotype

Physiology or somatotype refers to the study of the body build of a person in relation to his
temperament and personality and the type of offense he is most prone to commit. This approach
was originated by Ernst Kretschmer and developed by William Sheldon.

Kretschmer studied the different body types and presented the relationship between physique and
mental illness. He classified the body build into three distinct types:

1. Asthenic type - Thin with long narrow arms, delicate one structure and appearance; could also be
muscular and athletic. This body type is associated with schizophrenia and tends to be idealistic,
introverted, withdrawn, and prone to commit larceny and fraud cases.
2. Pyknic type - round, fat and fleshy body; associated with manic-depressiveness. Persons with this
built tend to be moody, extrovert, jolly and realistics. They are prone to commit deception, fraud and
violence.
3. Dysplastic type - parly asthenic and partly pyknic with no identifiable mental illness. Their offenses
are against decency and morality.

Sheldon defined three body tyoes and their corresponding temperaments:

Body Type Physical Attributes Temperament
1. Ectomorph Tall, thin, bony, droopy Cerebrotonic - full of
shoulders complaints, insomniac with
chronic fatigue and sensitive
skin, nervous and self-
conscious, an introvert
2. Endomorph Round, fat, short, tapering Viscerotonic - relaxed, jolly,
limbs, and small bones lazy, comfortable, loves luxury,
an extrovert
3. Mesomorph Muscular with athletic built Somotonic - active, dynamic,
walks, talks and gestures
assertively; behaves
aggressively; dominant; more
prone to criminal activity than
the ectomorphs and
endomorphs.

Physical Defects and Crimes

Leaders of notorious criminal groups are usually nicknamed, in accordance with their physical
defects or handicaps, such funny names as “Dorong Pilay”, “Asiong Bingot”, “Densiong Unano”, and
others. These physical defects were the usual source of irritation during their childhood days
whenever they were the subject of mockery by others. As a result, they develop inferiority complex.
Consequently, they have poor social relationship and serious emotional disturbances. They lack
competitiveness occupationally and socially, and they become frequently irritated by people. This
makes them resort to violent criminal behavior.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINALITY

Psychologits and psychiatrists, same with biologists and chemists, also attempted to explain
behavior. They tried to find out whether criminal behavior is caused by such personality factors as
emotional problems, mental disorders, sociopathy, and thinking patterns. The psychological and
psychiatric theories have the common assumption that there is something wrong with the mind of
the offender, which causes him to commit crimes.

Psychoanalytic Theory

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this theory blames criminal or delinquent behavior to a conscience that is either so overbearing that
it arouses feelings of guilt, or so weak that it cannot control the individual’s impulses and leads to a
need for immediate gratification.

Sigmund Freund(1856 - 1939) - the founder of psychoanalysis, viewed criminality as a result of too
much gulit feelings. He noticed that those suffering from unbearable guilt committed crimes in order
to be apprehended and punished. Once they had been punished, their feelings of guilt were relieved.

Freud attributed these feelings to man’s personality structure: the id, ego and the super-ego as
follows:

1. The Id - it is the impulsive part of the personality and unconcious. It represents the unconscious
biological drives for sex, food and others life-sustaining necessities. The id impulses require instant
gratification without concern for the rights of others. Hence, they must be repressed. It operates
accourding to “pleasure principles.”

2. The Ego - this is the objective, rational part of personality, the reality component. Hence, it
considers sensibility and responsibility to others. The ego compensates for the demands of the id by
helping the individual guide his actions to remain within the boundaries of righteousness and
fairness. It operates accourding to “reality principle.”
3. The Superego - the superego is the “conscience” of a person. It is the moral aspect of personality.
It allows a person to feel pride, shame and guilt. Thus, it is largely responsible for making a person
follow the moral codes of society. It helps a person weigh his thoughts and actions. Freud believed
that some people are criminal due to an overdeveloped superego which leads to guilt, anxiety and a
desire for punishment.

In contrasy to Freud’s notion of criminality caused by overdeveloped superego, August Aichorn

argued that criminality is rather the result of an underdeveloped superego. Aichorn was a
psychoanalyst who administered an institution for juvenile delinquents. He observed that many of
the incarcerated youths had underdeveloped superegos, and he attributed their criminality to
unregulated id (Glick, 1996).

Personality and Crimes

Some psychological studies have examined the relation between personality and criminality. In the
investigation of the differences of personality between criminals and non-criminals carried out in
prisons, it showed that inmates are typically more impulsive, hostile, self-centered, and immature
than non-criminals. In another study, psychiatrist-psychologists concluded that criminal share
abnormal thinking patterns that lead to decisions to commit crimes. They argued that criminals are
“angry” people who feel a sense of superiority, expect not to be held accountable for their acts, and
have a highly inflated self-image. Any perceived attack on their glorified self-image elicits a strong
reaction, often a violent one.

In general, studies on criminals’ personality characteristics have revealed some relationships.

However, most data did not reveal any significant differences between criminal and noncriminal
psychology. Personality testing has not differentiated criminals from non-criminals.

Mental Disturbances and Crimes

Criminal behavior is also linked to some mental disturbances. These disturbances or disorders come
in many forms as follows:

1. Mental Deficiency - this is condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind existing
before age of eighteen, whether arising from inherent causes or induced by disease or injury.
Mentally deficient persons are prone to commit malicious damage to property and unnatural sex
offenses. They may commit violent crimes but definitely not crimes involving the use of mentality.

Classes of Mental Deficiency:

A. Idiots - persons with a mental defect to a degree that they are unable to guard themselves against
common physical dangers. Their mentality is comparable to that of a two year old child.

B. Imbeciles - persons with a mental defect, which though not amounting to idiocy, is yet so
pronounce that they are incapable of managing themselves or their affairs.

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C. Feeble-minded - persons with a mental defect, which though not amounting to imbecility, is yet so
pronounced that they require care, supervision and control for their own or for protection of other,
or in the case of children, they appear to be permanently incapable of receiving proper benefit from
instruction in ordinary schools.

D. Morally defective - persons with strong vicious or criminal propensities. They require care and
supervision and control for their own or for the protection of others.

2. Psychosis - This is a common category of mental disorder among youthful offenders and habitual
criminals. Psychosis can be functional or organic. It is characterized by infantile level of response,
lack of conscience, lack of affection to other, and aggression to environment and other people.
Psychotic people lose contact with reality and have difficulty distinguishing reality from fantasy.
Most of the time they have severe breakdowns in their ability to communicate and they become
isolated from others.

The most common type of psychoses are the following:

A. Schizophrenia - this is manifested by delusions or hallucinations or a clear-cut thought disorder.

This is also known as dementia praecox. Sometimes schizophrenics are not logical in their thought, as
shown by their language. Their personal appearance is dilapidated, and they are liable to impulsive
acts and may commit suicide.

B. Paranoia - it is a psychotic delusion characterized by incorrect or unreasonable ideas which can be

seen as truth by people suffering from this disorder. Paranoia is Greek term which means “a mind
beside itself.” Paranoid people are suspicious and have that feeling of being persecuted by others,
referred to as psychotic delusion. In the paranoid’s mind the delusion system is firm and is
accompanied by clear and orderly thinking because he or she can give rational, distinct and clear
reasons for his or her thoughts.

3. Neurosis - this is another common type of mental disorder linked to criminal behavior. Neurotic
behaviors are those that do not grossly violate social norms or represent severely disorganized
personalities. Most neurotics are aware of their problems and may not seek professional help. They
do not require hospitalization but are guilty, unhappy, anxious people.

The most common neuroses with their respective symptoms are the following:

A. Neurasthenia - this is a condition of weakend nerves that manifests in fatigue an nervousness and
sometimes in physical symptoms such as pain.

B. Anxiety - it is also known as “anxiety state” or “anxiety reaction” with the person feeling anxious,
fearful or apprehensive. The person may also be irritable ad restless and has chronic tension, poor
concentration and overreaction to noise.

C. Obsessive-compulsive neurosis - this is the uncontrollable or irresistible impulsibe to do

something. There may be an active desire to resist this irrational behavior, but the person is
prevented by his unconscious motives to act out his difficulty or to suffer miserably in his fear. This
neurosis may be any of the following forms:

1) Kleptomania - the compulsive desire to steal

2) Dipsomania - the compulsive desire to drink alcohol
3) Pyromania - the compulsive desire to set fire
4) Homicidal compulsion - the irresistible urge to kill somebody

D. Hysteria - this refers to an unhealthy ir senseless emotional outburst coupled with violent
emotional outbreaks.

E. Phobia - it is generally called exaggerated fears of things that normal people fear to some degree,
and fears of things that ordinary people do not fear.

Some Common Phobias

Name of Phobia Object of Fear

Agoraphobia Open, crowded places

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Sociophobia People or social situations
Acrophobia Heights
Claustrophobia Enclosed spaces
Necrophobia Death and/ or dead
Homophobia Blood
Autophobia Being alone
Scotophobia/ Achluophobia Darkness
Pyrophobia Fire
Xenophobia Strangers, foreigners or aliens

F. Depression - People who suffer from depressive neurosis generally have feelings of pain, hurt,
unpleasantness, sadness, rejection, self-pity, helplessness, despair, boredom, pessimism, and
rejection. When these feelings become pervasive and effect all aspects of a person’s life, depression
is said to occur.

4. Epilepsy - This is a condition characterized by compulsive seizures and a tendency to mental

deterioration. The disease is characterized by reduced emotional control, stubbornness and
irresistibility, impulsiveness, inconsistency in feelings, irritability manifested either by sudden
outburst of anger and vicious conduct. Just before the convulsion, the epileptic may have mental
confusion, hallucination or delusion, and may commit violent crimes without provocation. After the
attack, he may be at the state of altered consciousness and may wonder from one place to another
and inflict bodily harm. In the course of mild attack, he may unconsciously perform indecent acts,
breach of the peace, and varying degree of crime of violence.

Intelligence and Crimes

The classical studies of the Juke and Kallikak families were among the first to show that
feeblemindedness or low intelligence was in inherited and transferred from one generation to the
next. Numerous test were likewise conducted that lead to the development of the use of IQ test as a
testing procedure for offenders. The very first results seemed to confirms that offenders had low
mental abilities. They were found to be mentally impaired and incapable of managing their affairs.

Authorities such as Bartol, Wilson and Herrstein indicate evidence that intelligence is inherited, as
shown by numerous studies conducted.

Criminologist Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang also proposed the idea that low IQ increases the
likelihood of criminal behavior through its effect on school performance, that is, youths with low IQs
do poorly in school, and school failure and academic incompetence are highly related to deliquency
and later to adult criminality.

Charles Goring (1870-1919) studied the mental characteristics of 3,000 English convicts. He found
little difference in the physical characteristics of criminals and non-criminals, but he uncovered a
significant relationship between crime and a condition he referred to as defective intelligence, which
involves such traits as feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity and defective social instinct. Goring
believed that criminal characteristics were inherited and recommended that people with such
characteristics should not be allowed to reproduce.

Cognitive Theory

This psychological theory of behavior is based on the belief that people organize their thoughts into
rules and laws, and that the way in which thoughts are organized results in either criminal or non-
criminal behavior. This organization of thoughts is called moral reasoning, and when applied to law,
legal reasoning.

there are several sub-disciplines od cognitive theory. Perhaps the most important for crime studies is
the Moral Development Theory pioneered by Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg contended that moral
reasoning develops in three stages. He called the first stage, pre-conventional; the second stage,
conventional; and the third, post-conventional. He and his associates conducted studies in which
criminals were found to be significantly lower in their moral judgement development than non-
criminals of the same social background.

Behavioral Theory

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Behavioral theory is based on the belief that all behavior is learned and can be unlearned. Its major
premise is that people alter their behavior accourding to the reactions it receives from others.
Behavior is supported by rewards and extinguished by negative reactions or punishments.

SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINALITY

Sociologist emphasize that human beings live in social groups, and that those groups and the social
structure they create influence behavior. Most sociological theories of crime causation assume that a
criminal’s behavior is determined by his or her social environment, which includes families, friends,
neighborhoods, and so on. Most sociological theories of crime explicitly reject the notion of the born
criminal.

A. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theories believe that crime is a product of learning the norms, values and behaviors
associated with criminal activity.

1. Differential Association Theory - developed by Edwin Sutherland, it assumes that persons who
become criminal do so because of contacts with criminal patterns and isolation from noncriminal
pattern.

Principles of Differential Association:

 Criminal behavior is learned. Delinquent and criminal behavior is learned in the same manner as
any other behavior, such as writing, painting, or reading.
 Learning is a by-product of interaction. Behavior is learned through interaction with others.
 Learning occurs within intimate groups. People’s contacts with their most intimate social
companions - family, friends, peers have the greatest influence on their deviant behavior and
attitude development.
 Criminal techniques are learned. Young delinquents learn from their associates the proper way
to pick up a lock, shoplift, and obtain and use narcotics.
 Perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives. The reaction to social rules and laws is
not uniform across society, and people constantly come into contact with others who maintain
different views on the utility of obeying the legal code. Some people they admire may openly
disdain or flout the law or ignore its substance. A person becomes a criminal when he or she
perceives more favorable than unfavorable consequences to violating the law. An example
would be when a person is exposed to friends sneaking into a theater to avoid paying for a
ticket.

2. Differential Reinforcement Theory - Proposed by Ronald Akers in collaboration with Robert

Burgess, it is a version of the social learning view that employs both differential association concepts
along with elements of psychological learning theory. Accourding to Akers, people learn to be
neither “all deviant” nor “all conforming” but rather strike a balance between the two opposing
poles of behavior. This balance is usually stable, but it can undergo revision over time.

A number of learning process shape behavior. Direct conditioning, also called differential
reinforcement, occurs when behavior is reinforced by being either rewarded or punished while
interacting with others. When behavior is punished, this is called negative reinforcement.

3. Neutralization Theory - this theory is identified with the writings of David Matza and Gresham
Sykes. They viewed the process of becoming a criminal as a learning experience in which potential
delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize
conventional values and drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior. Matza
argued that even the most committed criminals and delinquents are not involved in criminality all
the time; they also attend schools, family functions and religious services.

Sykes and Matza based their theoretical model on these observations:

 Criminals sometimes voice a sense of guilt over their illegal acts.

 Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding persons.
 Criminals draw a line between those whom they can victimize and those whom they cannot.
 Criminals are not immune to the demands of conformity.

Techniques of Neutralization:

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 Denial of responsibility
 Denial of injury
 Denial of victim

B. Social Control Theory

Another approach is made by the social bond or social control theory. Instead of looking for factors
that make people become criminal, these theories try to explain why people do not become
criminal. Travis Hirschi identified four main characteristics: “attachment to others”, “belief in moral
validity of rules,” “commitment to achievement,” and “involvement in conventional activities.”

The more a person features those characteristics, the less are the chances that he or she becomes
deviant (or criminal). On the other hand, if those factors are not present in a person, it is more likely
that he or she might become criminal. A simple example is when someone wants to have big yacht
but does not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control, he or she might try
to get the yacht (or the means for it) in an illegal way; whereas someone with high self-control will
(more likely) either wait or deny himself or herself.

C. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory assumes that society is based primarily on conflict between competing interest
groups for instance, the rich against poor, management against labor, mean against women, adults
against children. In many cases, competing interest groups are not equal in power and resources.
Consequently, one group is dominant and the other is subordinate. One of the earliest theorists to
apply conflict theory to the study of crime was George Fold.

 Radical Theory

Although Karl Marx wrote very little about crime and criminal justice, radical theories of crime
causation are generally based on Max’s ideas. Among the first criminologists to employ Marxist
theory to explain crime and justice were Richard Quinney, William Chambliss and Anthony Platt.
Radical criminologist argue that capitalism is an economic system thay requires people to compete
againsnt each other in the individualistic pursuit of material wealth. The destructive effects of
capitalism, such as crime, are not caused by income or property inequality or poverty. Rather, crime
is caused by class struggle the competition among wealthy people and among poor people, between
rich and poor people, and the practice of taking advantage of other people.

D. Social Reaction Theory

Commonly called labeling theory, the focus of social reaction theory is the criminalization process -
the way people and actions are defined as criminal. The distinguishin feature of all “criminals” is that
they have been the object of a negative social reaction. Throughout their lives, people are given a
variety of symbolic labels and ways to interact with others. Negative labels include “troublemaker”,
“mentally ill”, and “stupid”. These labels reduce the self-image of the individual. The less personal
power and fewer resources a person has, the greatr the chance he or she will become labeled.

 Labeling Theory

This theory states that the reaction of other people and the the immediate effects of these reactions
create deviance. Once it became known that a person has engaged in a delinquent behavior, said
person is segregated from society, and a label such as “thief”, “drug addict”, and “criminal,” is
attached to the person. Labeling serves as a process of segregation that creates “outsiders” or
outcasts from society, who begin to associate wth others who also have been cast out. The more
people begin to think of these people as devians and respond to them as such, the more these
deviants react to the response by continuing to engage in the behavior society now expects of them.
This theory serves as a process where the self-image of a labeled deviant is attached to him
permanently.

E. Social Structure Theories

Many criminologist view the disadvantaged economic class position as a primary cause of crime. This
view is referred to as social structure theories. These theories sugges that social and economic forces
operating the deterioted lower-class areas push many of their residents into criminal behavior

17
patterns. They consider the existence of unsupervised teenage gangs, high crime rates, and social
disorder in slum areas as major social problems.

There are three independent, yet overlapping branches within the social structure perspective -
social disorganization, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory.

1. Social Disorganization Theory

Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry Mckay and Clifford Shaw of the Chicago
School. It links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics. A disorganized area is one in
which institutions of social control, such as the family, commercial establishments and school have
brokedown and can no longer carry out their expected functions. Indicators of social disorganization
include high unemployment, school dropout rates, deteriorated housing, low income levels and large
numbers of single-parent households. Residents in these areas experience conflict and despair, and
as a result, antisocial behavior flourishes.

2. Strain Theory

This theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the
means they can use to legally obtain them. Although social and economic goals are common to
people in all economic strata, strain theorists argue that the ability to obtain these goals is class-
dependent. People desire wealth, material possessions, power, prestige, and other life comforts.
Members of the lower class are unable to achieve these symbols of success through convesntional
means. Consequently, they feel anger, frustration and resentment, which is referred to as strain.
Lower-class citizens can either accept their condition, or they can choose an alternative means of
achieving success such as theft, violence, or drug trafficking.

The roots of strain theories can be traced to Emile Durkheim’s notion of anomie. Sociologist Robert
Merton used a modified version of the concept of anomie to fit social, economic, and cultural
conditons found in modern U.S. society. He suggested the mainstream culture is saturated with
dreams of opportunity, freedom and prosperity; as Merton put it, the American Drea. Most people
buy into this dream, and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation. If the social
structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of
them will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it. Others will retreat or dropout into
deviant subcultures (gang members, “hobos”: urban homeless drunks and drug abusers).

Sociologist Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST) helps identify the micro-level or individual
influences of strain. Whereas Merton tried to explain social class differences in the crime rate,
Agnew tried to explain why individuals who feel stress are more likely to commit crimes. He also
offered a more general explanation of criminal activity among all elements of society rather than
restricting his views to lower-class crime. He suggested that criminality is the direct result of negative
affective states- the anger, frustration, and adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative
and destructive social relationships. These negative affective states are produced by a variety of
sources of strain:

 Failure to achieve goals

 Disjunction of expectations and achievements
 Removal of positve stimuli
 Presentation of negative stimuli

3. Cultural Deviance Theory

This theory combines elements of both strain and social disorganization. Accourding to this view,
because of strain and social isolation, a unique lower-class culture develops in disorganized
neighborhoods. These independent sub-cultures maintain a unique set of values and beliefs that are
in conflict with conventional social norms. Middle-class culture stresses hard work, delayed
gratification, formal education, and being cautious; the lower-class subculture stresses excitement,
toughness, risk-taking, fearlessness, immediate gratification, and “street smart.” the lower-class
subculture is an attractive alternative because the urban poor find that it is impossible to meet the
behavioral demands of middle-class society.

Albert Cohen postulated the Theory of Delinquent Subcultures. His position was that delinquent
behavior of lower-class youths is actually a protest against the norms and values of middle-class
culture. Because social conditions make them incapable of achievinf success legitimately, lower-class

18
youths experience status frustration. As a result, they join in gangs and engage in non-utilitarian,
malicous and negativistic behavior.

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin also combined strain and social disorganization principles into a
portrayal of a gang-sustaining criminal subculture. They agreed with Cohen and founf that
independent delinquent subcultures exist within society. They suggest that delinquency can result
from differential opportunity for lower-class youth, hence the Theory of Differential Opportunity.
Such youths may be tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that
provides them more lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as
minimum wage-paying jobs available to them.

Geographical Factors

Earlier criminologists correlated climate, humidity, wind, velocity, atmosphere pressure, rainfull,
nature of soil, and other geographical factors to the existence and development of crimes and
criminality. The following are some of the explanations formulated by criminologists about the
contribution of geography on crimes.

1. North and South Pole

Accourding to Quetelet’s “thermic law of delinquency”, crimes against persons predominate in the
South Pole during warm season while crimes against property predominate in the North Pole and
cold countries.

2. Approach to the Equator

Accourding to Montesquieu (Spirits of Laws, 1748), criminality increases in proportion is one

approaches the equator, and drunkenness increases as one approaches the north and south pole.

3. Season of the Year

Crimes against persons are more in summer than in the rainy season while crimes against property
are more during rainy season. Climatic conditions directly affect one’s irritability and cause
criminality. During dry season, people get out of the houses more, and there is more contact and
consequently more probability of personal violence.

4. Soil Formation

More crimes of violence are recorded in fertile level lands than in hilly, rugged terrain. In these plaes
are more congregations of people, and there is more irritation. Also, there is more incidence of rape
in level districts.

5. Month of the Year

There is frequent incidence of violent crimes during wrm months from April to July having its peak in
May. This due to May festivals, excursions, picnics, and other sorts of festivities wherein people are
more in contact with one another.

6. Temperature

Studies showed that the number of arrests increases quite regularly with the increase of
temperature. Increase of temperature affects the emotional state of the individual and leads to
fighting. Furthermore, the influences of temperature upon females wre greater than upon males.

7. Humidity and Atmospheric Pressure

Accourding to a survey, large numbers of assaults are to be found correlated with low humidity and
a small number with high humidity. It was explained that low and high humidity are both vitally and
emotionally depressing to the individual.

8. Wind Velocity

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Studies explained that during high wind, arrests were less. It may be due to the presence of more
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that lessens the vitality of men to commit violence.

Other Sociological Cause of Crimes

1. Lack of parental guidance

2. Broken homes and family
3. Poor statues of neighborhood
4. Bad association with criminal groups
5. Lack of recreational facilities for proper use of leisure time
6. Lack of employment opportunities
7. Failure of the school in character development of the children or the youth
8. Influence of mass media

OTHER FACTORS OF CRIME CAUSATION

1. Alcoholism - it is a form of vice causing mental disturbance. It is a condition wherein a person is

under the influence of intoxicating liquor or alchohol. His physical condition and behavior may be
modified to a certain extent by the effects of alcohol. The drunkard habitually takes or uses
intoxicating alcoholic liquor. Once under the influence of liquor, he becomes dangerous to himself or
to others. He may commit violent crimes and influct physical injuries. Habitual drunkard may commit
suicide, sex offense and exquisite crimes.

2. Drug Addiction - this is another form of vice which causes strong mental disturbance. Drug
addiction is the state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by repeated consumption of
natural or synthetic drugs. The vice is punishable by the Revise Penal Code and the Dangerous Drugs
Act. An addict may commit crimes against property when he or she has no more money to buy the
drugs. A woman may become a prostitute just to get money to buy her drugs may commit violent
crimes and commit suicide due to extreme suffering.

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 MODULE 1 - 5

Name:___________________________________________Year & Section:_____________________

Address:_____________________________________________________Date:_________________
Instructor:_________________________________________________________________________

V. Evaluation:

Multiple Choice
Directions: Read the statement or question very carefully. Encircle the letter of your correct answer.

1. These laws were based on an “eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” concept of retribution.
A. Twelve Tables
B. Divine Laws
C. Code of Hammurabi
D. Early Greek laws

2. When people commit crimes, the punishment is in the form of plagues, earthquakes, or other
forms of desolation. What concept of criminality is this?
A. Crime is caused by demon.
B. Crime is caused by divine will.
C. Crime is a matter of personal offense and retribution.
D. Crime is equal to sin.

3. This family was studied by Henry Goddard to prove that defects such as criminality is this?
A. Juke Family
B. Kallikak Family
C. Edward’s Family
D. Hommy Family

4. Richard Dugdale’s study of this family attempted to prove that criminality runs in the blood.
A. Juke Family
B. Kallikak Family
C. Edward’s Family
D. Hommy Family

5. He became popular for his somatotyping theory.

A. William Sheldon
B. Ernest Krestchmer
C. Albert Cohen
D. George Fold
6. This body type is described as athletic and muscular. Persons of this type are routinely active,
dominant, aggressive, and are the most likely to commit crimes.
A. Ectomorph
B. Endomorph
C. Mesomorph
D. Sumomorph

7. Person of this body type are tall, thin and bony. They are full of complaints, self-conscious and
introverted.
A. Endomorph
B. Ectomorph
C. Sumomorph
D. Mesomorph

8. This body type is described as round and soft. Persons with this body build are typically relaxed,
lazy and comfortable.
A. Endormorph
B. Sumomorph
C. Ectomorph
D. Mesomorph

9. It is the moral aspect of an individual’s personality that allows a person to feel pride, shame and
guilt. Thus, it is largely responsible for making a person follow the moral codes of society.

21
A. Id
B. Ego
C. Ego ideal and conscience
D. Superego

10. It represents the uncoscious biological drives for sex, food, and other like sustaining necessities.
A. Ego
B. Id
C. Superego
D. Ego and ideal conscience

11. The shape of the human skull is indicative of one’s personality and could be used to predict
criminality. What field of study is this?
A. Phrenology
B. Physiognomy
C. Somatotype
D. Heredity

12. It is a psychotic delusion characterized by incorrect or unreasonable ideas which can be seen as
truth by people suffering from this discorder.
A. Depression
B. Schizophrenia
C. Paranoia
D. Neurosis

13. It is the uncontrollable or irresistible impulse to do something.

A. Hysteria
B. Phobia
C. Paranoia
D. Obsessive-compulsive neurosis

14. It is an assumption that crimes against person predominate in the south pole during warm
season while crimes against property predominate in the North Pole and cold countries.
A. Temperature
B. Wind velocity
C. Humidity and atmospheric pressure
D. Thermic law of delinquency

15. He believed that some individuals performed criminal acts because they possessed an
overdeveloped superego, which lead to constant feeling guilt and anxiety.
A. David Abrahamsen
B. August Aichorn
C. Sigmund Freud
D. Ernest Hooton

16. It is the scientific study of crime, criminals and criminal behavior.

A. Criminology
B. Criminal etiology
C. Criminal psychology
D. Crimal epidemiology

17. It is an attempt at scientific analysis of the causes of crimes.

A. Penology
B. Sociology of law
C. Criminal epidemiology
D. Criminal etiology

18. Which is not a goal of studying criminology?

A. To understand criminal behavior
B. To predict criminal behavior
C. To control criminal behavior
D. None of these

19. The following are studies related to criminology, except one:

22
A. Theology
B. Geology
C. Public administration
D. Education

20. The following are natural sciences that may be applied in criminology, except one:
A. Psychology
B. Sociology
C. Medicine
D. Anthropology

21. The study of criminology changes as social condition changes. This means that criminology is:
A. An applied science
B. A social science
C. Dynamic
D. Interdisciplinary

22. It means that the study of crime varies from place to place.
A. Criminology is relative
B. Criminology is a social science
C. Criminology is interdisciplinary
D. Criminology is an applied science

23. Many disciplines are involved in the study of crimes and criminal behavior such as sociology,
psychology, psychiatry, economics, political science, among others.
This true of criminology being:
A. An interdisciplinary field
B. A social science
C. Dynamic
D. An applied science

24. This means the study of criminology includes not only the study of crimes and criminal behavior
but also the reaction of society towards crime and criminal behavior.
A. An applied science
B. A social science
C. Dynamic
D. Nationalistic

25. It is the study of criminality in relation to spatial distribution in a community.

A. Criminal epidemiology
B. Criminal ecology
C. Criminal demography
D. Criminal physical anthropology

26. A modification of classical theory, this theory assume that certain factors such as insanity would
inhibit the exercise of free will.
A. Classical theory
B. Positivist theory
C. Neoclassical theory
D. Differential association theory

27. This theory holds that human behavior is determined and not a matter of free will, and that
crime is caused by multiple factors.
A. Classical theory
B. Positivist theory
C. Neoclassical theory
D. Differential association theory

28. It is based on the assumption that people exercise free will and are thus completely responsible
for their actions.
A. Classical theory
B. Positivist theory
C. Neoclassical theory
D. Differential association theory

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29. What principle states that human being choose those actions that give pleasure and avoid those
that bring pain?
A. Determinism
B. Atavism
C. Hedonism
D. Realism

30. Person who kill in self-defense fall under this category of criminals.
A. Passionate criminals
B. Criminaloids
C. Pseudo criminals
D. Habitual criminals

VI. Referrence:

Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of Crimes

Author: Armando A. Alviola, PhD Crim., PhD Educ. Mngt.
Editor: Jannel C. Alviola, Med

Prepared by:

Kenneth Wensley E. Razona, RC

Instructor

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 MODULE 6-9

I. Title: Crim 1 (Introduction to Criminology)

II. Overview:
This module discuss about the Crime Concepts and Victimology.

III. Objectives:
After you finish this module you will able to:

1. Define crime and know its elements.

2. Know the three ingredients of crime.
3. Undestand the crime typologies.
4. Define victimology.
5. Understand the nature of victimization.

IV. Discussion:

CRIME CONCEPTS

Definition of Crime

Crime is any rational human conduct that violates a criminal law and is subject to punishment (Adler,
Mueller & Laufer, 1995).

Crime is defined as an act committed or omitted in violation of a public law forbidding or

commanding it and for which punishment is imposed upon conviction. (American Heritage
Dictionary)

Crime is an act or omission prohibited by law. It is also defined as an act that violates the law of the
nation. (Inciardi, 2005).

Crime is a variation of societal rules of behavior as interpreted and expressed by the criminal law,
which reflects public opinion, traditional values and the viewpoint of preople presently holding social
and political power. Individuals who violates these rules are subjet to sanctions by state authority,
social stigma, and loss of status (Siegel, 2007).

In legal terms, crime is an international violation of the crimal law or penal code, committed without
defense or excuse and penalized by the state.

Crime is an international act or omission in violation of crimial law (statutory and case law),
committed without defense or justification and sanctioned by the state as a felony or misdemeanor
(Reid, 1997)

Within the social context, crime is a behavior that violates the norms of society - or, more simply,
antisocial behavior or deviance.

A norm is any standard or rule regarding what human beings should or should not think, say or do
under given circumstances (Bohm & Haley, 2002).

Deviance refers to conduct which the people of a group consider so dangerous or embarrassing or
irritating that the bring special sanctions to bear against the persons who exhibit it. It should be
noted though that nor all deviant behavior is criminal behavior (Inciardi, 2005).

Element of Crime

Technically and ideally, a crime has not been committed unless all of the following elements are
present:

1. Harm - for crime to occur, there must be an external consequence or harm. A mental or emotional
state is not enough. Thus, thinking about committing a crime or being angry enough to commit a
crime, without acting on the thought or the anger, is not a crime. The harm maybe physical or
verbal.

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2. Legality - this has two aspects. First, the harm must be legally forbidden for a behavior to become
crime. Thus, violation of union rules, or any rules other than those of a political jurisdiction may be
“wrong,” but they are not a crime unless they are also prohibited by criminal law.
Second, a criminal law must not be retroactive, or ex post facto law: (1) declares criminal act
that was not illegal when it was committed, (2) increases the punishment for a crime after it is
committed, or (3) alters the rules of evidence in a particular case after the crime is committed.

3. Actus reus - this Latin term refer to criminal conduct - specifically, intentional or criminally
negligent (reckless) action or inaction that causes harm. Crimes involves not only things people do
but also things they do not do. For example: Parents who fail to provide their children with adequate
food, clothing and shelter, are commiting a crime.

4. Mens rea - The Latin term mens rea refers to a criminal intent or a guilty state of mind.

Offenders who commit crimes with mens rea are to be held liable, except in the following
extenuating circumstances:
a. Acting under duress - e.g. committing robbery to save the life of a loved one
b. Being underage - e.g. a six-year old child who picked a gun and shoots his or her parent
c. Insanity - A person is legally insane if, at the time of the commission of the act, he or she (1) did
not know the nature and quality of the act or (2) did not know that the act was wrong.
d. Acted in a self-defense or in defense of a third party
e. Entrapment - it is an inducement an individual to commit a crime not contemplated by him or
her, undertaken for the sole purpose of instituting a criminal prosecution against the offender.
Cases of entrapment occur when the police officers or civilian acting at their command, induce
a person to commit a crime that he or she would not have otherwise undertaken. For example,
a police officer convinces an individual to rob another and then arrests the individual after the
crime has been committed. The defense of entrapment would be applied in this case.
f. Acting out of necessity - The necessity defense can be used when a crime has been committed
to prevent a greater or more serious crime. Interestingly, the law does not recognize economic
necessity as an excuse from criminal responsibility. Thus, the unemployed and hungry thief
who steals groceries cannot employ the necessity defense.

5. Causation - This refers to the causal relationship between the legally forbidden harm and the
actus reus. In the other words, the criminal act must lead directly to the harm without a long delay.

6. Concurrence - This means that there should be a concurrence between actus reus and mens rea. In
other words, the criminal conduct and the criminal intent must occur together. Suppose you call
someone to repair your washing machine, and on the way out takes your television set. The repair
person cannot be found guilty of entering your home illegally (trespass) because that was not his or
her initial intent. Homever, the same person can be found guilty of stealing your television set.

7. Punishment - For a behavior to be considered a crime, there must be a statutory provison for
punishment or atleast the treat of punishment. Without the treat of punishment, a law is
unenforceable and is therefore not a crimal law (Bohm & Haley). As the legal maxim goes, “nullum
crimen, nulla poena sine legis,” meaning, there is no crime where there is no law punishing it.

The Three Ingredient of Crime (Philippine Nationl Police)

1. Motive or Desire - This is the driving force, the reason why the accused committed the crime.
2. Opportunity - it refers to the time and place of the commission of the crime.
3. Instruments - these are tools employed by criminals.

Formula of crime occurrence:

MOTIVE + OPPORTUNITY + INSTRUMENT/S = CRIME

When Does Crime Exist?

From the legal viewpoint, crime exist when the person has been proven guilty by the court. This view
is based on the presumption of innocence as provided for by the 1987 Constitution that only after
trial and the proof beyond reasonable doubt us established by the prosecution that the accused has
committed the crime.

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From the scientific point of view, crime exists when it is reported. This is more realistic, but not all
reported cases are with sound basis of true happening. Some of them are also unfounded.

Distinction Between Crime and Sin

Crime is an act or omission against the penal law of a state while sin is an act or omission against the
spiritual or divine law.

Distinction Between Crime and Immorality

1. Crime is committed against the law of the state, while immorality is committed agaist the
unwritten social norms in a locality.

2. Crime is fixed by statute, while immorality is not.

3. Crime is nationalistic, while immorality is regionalistic.

Why Must Members of Society Be Interested in Crimes?

1. Crime is pervasive

Almost all members of a free society have been a victim or an offender of a criminal act. Crime is an
associate of society affects almost all people regardless of age, sex, race, nationality, religion,
financial condition, education, and other circumstances.

2. Crime is expensive

The government and private sectors spend an enourmous amount of money for crime detection,
prosecution, correction, and prevention.

It is said that peace and order is a condition to economic progress and development. There can be no
progress when there are chaos and disorders. In contrast, criminality thrives when economy is
growing. Crime rate is high in highlu urbanized cities where businesses operate. So, if the problems
are not effectively addressed and prevented, the economy of a certain country will suffer.

3. Crime is destructive

Many lives have been lost because of crimes such as murder, homicide and other violent crimes.
Many properties have been lost or destroyed because of robbery, theft and arson.

4. Crime is reflective

Crime rate or incident in a given locality is reflective of the effectiveness of the social defensses
employed by the people, primarily by the police system.

5. Crime is progressive

The marked increase in the volume of crimes is on account of the ever increasing population. The
state of thinking of the society and its advancement.

Advantages of the Existance of Crime

While it is true that crimes are disadvantegous most of the time, for experts crimes also offer some
benefits. The following are viewed advantages of crime occurrence.

1. It promotes solidarity among people.

Members of the community offer all their assistance to establish a strong front against crime. Family
ties become stronger; groups become more united and solidified to fight criminality.

2. It prevents morality from going to the extremes.

Penal laws are the safeguard of our morality. When morality becomes low, they serves as reminders
to society that something has to be done at once to prevent morality from going beyond its limits.

27
3. It is a notification of maladjustment.

Whenever a person violates criminal law, such is a proof that his action is not within the accepted
norms in a society. Crime is a symptom of social disorganization, just as fever or pain in a signt that a
person is sick.

CRIME TYPOLOGIES

A typology is an organizing device for categorizing large amounts of information into mutual
exclusive categories. A number of typologies are used in the field of criminology, but to date no
universally accepted typology of offenders or legal categories exist (Voigt, Thornton, Barrile, &
Seaman, 1994).

Simply put, crime typology refers to the type of a particular crime category. Criminologists group
criminal offenders and/ or criminal behaviors into categories or typologies so they may be more
easily studied and understood. Crimes are usually classified according to the degree or severity of
the offense, the nature of the acts prohibited, psychological characteristics of the offender, career
patterns of the offender, or on some other bases.

General Categories of Crime

1. Offense - In the Philippines, an offense is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws such
as:
a. Republic acts
b. Presidential decrees
c. Executive orders
d. Memorandum circulars
e. Ordinances
f. Rules and regulations

A special law is a statute enacted by congress, penal in character, which is not an amendment of the
Revise Penal Code.

2. Felony - it is a serious crime. This category includes murder, rape, aggravated assault, robbery,
arson, and so on. A felony is an act or omission that is punishable by the Revis Penal Code.

3. Delinquency/Misdemeanor/Infraction - it is an act that is in violation of a simple rule or

regulation, a minor violation of the law. It usually refers to those committed by minor offenders such
as violations of city or municipal ordinances. Examples are jaywalking, spitting on the sidewalk,
littering, and certain traffic violations, including failure to wear a seatbelt.

Crimes are also generally classified as follows: (Siegel, 2004; Cole & Smith, 2008)

1. Violent crimes include offenses where violence was applied. They are also called acts or crimes
against persons. Rape, assault, domestic violence, robbery, and murder belong to this category.

2. Economic crimes are primarily committed to bring financial gain to the offender. The most
common ones are crimes against property such as burglary (house breaking). theft, carnapping
motor vehicle theft, shoplifting, arson, and fencing.

Economic crimes may also classified as:

a. White-collar crimes. They are violations of law committed by a person or group of person in the
coarse of an otherwise respected and legitimate occupation or business enterprise. Offeses
under this category are oftentimes in form of fraud cases, such as securities-related crimes,
bank frauds, frauds committed against the government, consumer fraud, computer crimes,
insurance fraud, tax fraud, and other related cases involving deceit.
b. Organized crimes. they are generally characterized by the use of legitimate of illegitimate
business enterprise for illegal profit. This crime type involves thousands of criminals working
within structures as complex as those of any large corporation, subject to laws more rigidly
enforced than those of legitimate government. The behavior of the organization is not
impulsive but rather than result of intricate conspiracies carried on over many years, and aimed
at gaining control over whole fields of activities in order to have profit.

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 Economic is the driving force behind organized crime. Organized crime is especially active the
goods and services that are scarce and illegal but have a strong market demand. Drugs, prostitution,
gambling, racketeering, pornography, and other law violations in the nature of an illegal business
primarily focus on profit.

3. Public order crimes. They are unlawful acts that interfere with the normal operation of society
and the ability of people to function efficiently. Moreover, they are sometimes called “victimless
crimes” because there is no direct, tangible, and complaining victim. However, some argues that
secondary victims - family, friends, acquaintances, and society at large - can be identified.
Prostitution, pornography, drug addiction, gambling, public drunkenness, vandalism, and disorderly
conduct are among behaviors that fall under this category. Although the police treat them as minor
offenses, some scholars argue that they can lead to more serious crimes.

Legal Classification of Crimes (The Revise Penal Code/RPC)

A. According to the degree or severity of the offense

1. Felonies - these are the acts and omissions punishable by law. Generally, a felony is a relatively
serious offense punishable by death, a fine or confinement in a national prison for more than one
year.

2. Misdemeanors - they are minor offenses that are punishable by no more than fine and/ or one
year imprisonment, typically in a local jail.

B. According to the nature of the acts prohibited

1. Mala in se - the term means “evil in itself.” They are crimes that are “wrong in themselves.” They
are characterized by universally and timelessness, that is, they are considered crimes everywhere
and have been crimes at all times. For example: murder, rape and robbery.

If the acts are inherently immoral, they are mala in se, even though they are punishable by special
laws, not by general criminal laws (People vs. Bayanes, CR-08735, January 23, 1991).

2. Mala prohibita - This means “wrong because it is prohibited.” They are offenses that are illegal
because laws define them as such. They lack universally and timelessness. For example: gambling,
trespassing, prostitution, dynamite fishing, illegal logging, and illegal possession of firearms.

C. As to the manner crimes are committed

1. By means of dolo or deceit - when the act done with deliberate intent (intentional felony).

2. By means of culpa or fault - when the wrongful act results from imprudence, negligence, lack of
foresight, or lack of skill (culpable felony).

D. As to the stages in the commission of crime

1. Attempted crimes - when the offender commences the commission of a felony directly by overt
acts and does not perform all the acts of execution, which could produce the felony by reason of
some causes or accident other than his own spontaneous desistance.

2. Frustrated crimes - when the offender has performed all the acts of execution which will produce
the felony as a consequence but which, nevertheless, do not produce the felony by reason of cause
independent of the will of the perpetrator.

3. Consummated crimes - when all the elements necessary for execution and accomplishment of the
crime are present.

E. As to the plurality of crimes

1. Simple crimes - when a single act constitutes only.

Examples: homicide, robbery, rape

29
2. Complex crimes - when a single act constitutes two or more grave felonies or when an offense is a
necessary means for committing other.
Example: Robbery with homicide

in a complex crime, although two or more crimes are actually committed, they constitute only
one crime. When the offender executes various acts, he must have a single purpose.

Other examples of complex crimes:

 The single act of firing a shot causing the death of two persons who were standing on the same
line of the direction of the bullet.
 The single act of throwing a hand grenade producing murder and multiple attempted murders.
 Placing a time bomb in a plane, which caused the latter to explode in mid-air, killing thirteen
persons therein, constitutes a complex crime of multiple murder and destruction of property.
 Several shots from Thompson sub-machine gun causing several deaths, although caused by a
single act of pressing the trigger, are considered several acts. Multiple homicides or murders
which are grave felonies, are committed.

Note: Theft of firearms and illegal possession of same firearms do not form a complex crime; they
are two distinct crimes.

F. As the gravity of penalty or offense

1. Grave felonies - those to which the law attaches the capital punishment or afflictive penalties.

Afflictive penalties in accordance with Article 25 of the RPC include:

 Reclusion perpetua
 Reclusion temporal
 Perpetual or temporary absolute disqualification
 Perpetual or temporary special disqualification
 Prison mayor

Note: if the fine imposed is over 6,000 pesos, it is afflictive penalty.

2. Less grave felonies - those which the law punishes with penalties which are correctional in nature.

The following are correctional penalties:

 Prison correccional
 Arresto mayor
 Suspension
 Destierro

Note: It is a less grave felony if the amount of the fine imposed is more than 200 pesos but not
exceeding 6,000 pesos.

3. Light felonies - those infraction of law for the commission of which the penalty of arresto menor or
a fine not exceeding 200 pesos, or both, is imposed.

Examples of light felonies are:

 Slight physical injuries (Article 266)

 Theft (Article 309, pars. 7 & 8)
 Alteration of boundaries or landmarks (Article 313)
 Malicious mischief (Article 328, par.3; Article 329, par. 3)
 Intriguing against honor (Article 364)

G. As to basis of criminal act

1. Crimes against National Security and the Law of Nations

Examples: treason, espionage, piracy

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2. Crimes against the Fundamental Law of the State
Examples: arbitrary detention, violation of domicile

3. Crimes against Public Order

Examples: rebellion, sedition, coup d’état

4. Crimes against Public Interest

Examples: forgery, falsification of documents, fraud

5. Crimes against Public Morals

Examples: gambling and betting; offenses against decency and good customs such as scandals.
Obscenity, vagrancy, and prostitution

6. Crimes Committed by Public Officers

Examples: bribery, corruption, Malversation of public funds or property
7. Crimes against Persons
Examples: parricide, murder, homicide, physical injuries, infanticide, abortion

8. Crimes against Personal Liberty and Security

 Crimes against Personal Liberty

Examples: kidnapping, illegal detention
 Crimes against Security
Examples: abandonment of helpless persons or person in danger, exploitation of minors, trespass to
dwelling, threats and coercion

9. Crimes against Property

Examples: robbery with violence or intimidation of person; robbery by the use of force upon things;
brigandage; theft; occupation of real property or usurpation of real rights in property

10. Crimes against Chastity

Examples: adultery, concubinage, rape, acts of lasciviousness, seduction, corruption of minors, white
slave trade, abduction

11. Crimes against the Civil Status of Persons

Examples: bigamy and other illegal marriages

12. Crimes against Honor

Examples: libel (malicious accusation by writing), slander (oral defamation)

13. Quasi-offenses or Criminal Negligence

Examples: imprudence and negligence

Imprudence - indicates a deficiency of action; usually involves lack of skill.

If a person fails to take place the necessary precaution to avoid injury to person or damaging to
property, there is imprudence.

Negligence - indicates a deficiency of perception; usually involves lack of foresight.

If a person fails to pay proper attention and to use due diligence in foreseeing the injury or damage
impending to be caused, there is negligence.

Criminological Classification of Crimes

1. As to the result of crimes

a. Acquisitive crimes - when the offender acquires something as a consequence of his criminal act.
b. Extinctive crimes - when the result of a criminal act is destructive.

2. As to the time or period committed

a. Seasonal crimes - those committed only during a certain period of the year like during election
period, Christmas season, etc.

31
b. Situational crimes - those committed only when given the situation conducive to their
commission.

3. As to the length of time committed

a. Instant crimes - those committed in the shortest possible time.

b. Episodic crimes - those committed by a series of acts in a length space of time.

4. As to the location of the commission

a. Static crimes - those committed in only one place.

b. Continuing crimes - those committed in several places

5. As to use of mental faculties

a. Rational crimes - those committed with intentional and offender is in full possession of his
sanity.
b. Irrational crimes - those committed by persons who do not know the nature and quality of their
acts on account of a mental disease.

6. As to the type of offenders

a. White-collar crimes - those committed by persons of respectability and of upper socio-economic

class in the course of their occupational activities; also referred to as corporate or occupational
crime.

Examples:

 Tax evasion
 Stocks manipulation
 Plunder
 Bribery, graft and corruption
 Bankruptcy fraud
 Fraud against the government
 Computer crimes
 Insurance fraud
 Political fraud

b. Blue-collar crimes - those committed by ordinary professional criminals to maintain their

livelihood.

7. As to the standard of living of the criminals

a. Crimes of the upper world - e.g. falsification cases

b. Crimes of the underworld - e.g. bag snatching

Other Classes of Crimes

1. Crimes by Imitation - crimes committed by merely duplicating what done by other; based on the
explanation of crime as a learned behavior.
2. Crimes of Passion - those committed at the height of great emotions.
3. Service Crimes - crimes committed through rendition of service to satisfy desire of other.
4. Genocide - a crime committed by a government through mass destruction or annihilation of
human populations.
5. Transnational Crimes - violations of law that involve more than one country in their planning,
execution, e.g. drug trafficking, human trafficking (Albanese, 2010)
6. Environmental Crimes - acts that breach environmental legistration and cause significant harm or
risk to the environment and human health, e.g. illegal emission or discharge of substances into air,
water or soil; illegal trade in wildlife (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/legal/crime/).
7. Cyber Crimes - crimes that involve computers and networks.

32
8. Political Crimes - criminal activities for ideological purposes; also serious violations of laws that
threaten the security or existence of the government, e.g. terrorism, treason or sedition (Legal
Dictionary).
9. Family-related Crimes - crimes within family
10. Patriarchal Crimes - those committed against women and children in the name of traditional
make dominance.

Classification of Criminals

1. Acute criminals - they commit crimes due to impulses of the moment, fit of passion, anger, or spell
of extreme jealousy.

2. Chronic criminals - they are those who acted in consonance with deliberate thinking.

3. Normal criminals - Their psychic conditions resemble that of a normal individual, except that they
identify themselves with criminal prototypes.

4. Ordinary criminals - considered to be the lowest form in the criminal career, ordinary criminals
engage only in conventional crimes that require limited skill. They lack organization to help them
avoid arrest and conviction.

5. Organized criminals - they have high degree of organization to enable them to commit crimes
without being detected, with specialized criminal activities operated in large scale. Force, violence,
intimidation, and bribery are used to gain and maintain control over economic activities that include
various forms of racketeering, gambling, prostitution, and distribution of prohibited drugs.

6. Professional criminals - they are highly skilled and able to obtain considerable amount of money
without being detected due to organization and contact with professional criminals. They are
specializing in crimes that requires skills.

7. Accidental criminals - they commit criminal acts as a result of unantipated circumstances.

8. Situational criminals - they are not actually criminals but commit crimes due to a given situation;
sometimes their criminal activities are intermixed with legitimate activities.

9. Habitual criminals - they continue to commit criminal acts for diverse reasons due to deficiency of
intelligence and lack of self-control.

10. Active-aggressive criminals - they commit crimes in impulsive manner usually due to their
aggressive behavior, as shown in crimes of passion, resentment, or revenge.

11. Passive-inadequate criminals - they commit crimes because they are pushed to do it, by
inducement, reward, or promise without considering the consequences. For this, they are called
“ulukan.”

12. Sociolized criminals - they are normal in their behavior but mere inadequate and defective in
their socialization process. To this group belong the educated, respectable members of society. They
become criminals on the account of some situation they are involved.

Classification of Criminals (The Revised Penal Code)

1. Recidivist - is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime, shall have been previously convicted
by final judgement of another crime embraced in the same title of the Revise Penal Code.

2. Quasi-recidivist - is one who commits another crime after having been convicted by final
judgement of a crime falling under either the Revised Penal Code or Special Law, before beginning
serve such sentence or while serving the same.

3. Habitual Delinquent - is one who, within a period of ten (10) years from the date of his release or
conviction of the crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery, estafa, or falsification, is
found guilty of any of the said crimes for the third time or oftener.

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Measuring Crimes

The Philippine National Police (PNP), as the premier law enforcement agency, acknowledges the
important role of generating statistical crime data in the overall assessment of crime trends in the
country. Hence, the PNP Headquarters issued “Letter of Instruction: Unit Crime Periodic Report
(UCPER)” dated April 22, 2009. This directive prescribes a uniform procedure in reporting and
collecting crime data reported to the different law enforcement agencies.
As described in the said directive:

“Crime statistics provide a mathematical measure of the level or amount of crime that is
prevalent in societies. The gathered crime data would help the law enforcement sector present an
accurate crime situation of the country.”

Some of the salient provisions of the UCPER are presented in the foregoing discussion.

Two Mechanisms in Collecting Statistical Crime Data

1. The National Crime Reporting System (NCRS) - concerned more with the details of the crime such
as victim’s data, offender’s data, among others.
2. Police Regional Office Periodic Report (PROPER) - mainly concerned with what happened, where,
to whom, why and the results of investigation.

Definition of Terms

a. Crimes - include felonies which are violations of the Revised Penal Code and offense which are
violations of special laws.
b. Crime Volume - is the number of crime incidents committed in a given area over a period of
time which include the index and non-index crimes.

CV = Index Crimes + Non-Index Crimes

C. Population - is the number of inhabitants in a given area. The figures to be used is the medium
assumption as per the records from the National Statistics Office (NSO).

D. Crime Rate - is the number of crime incidents in a given period of the for every 100,000
inhabitants in the area.

Crime Rate = Crime Volume

Population / 100,00

E. Index Crimes - are crimes which are serious in nature and which occur with sufficient frequency
and regularity such that they can serve as an index to crime situation. Only the crimes of murder,
homicide, physical injury (serious and less serious), carnapping, cattle rustling, robbery, theft, and
rape are considered as index crimes.

F. Solved Cases - NAPOLCOM M.C. No. 94-017 provides that:

A case shall be considered solved:

1) When the following elements occur: The offender has been identified; there is sufficient
evidence to charge him; the offender has been taken into custody; and the offender has been
charged before the prosecutor’s office or court of appropriate jurisdiction.

2) When some elements beyond the police control prevent the arrest of the offender, such as
when the victim refuses to prosecute after the offender is identified or the offender dies or
absconds.

G. Crime Solution Efficiency (CSE) - is the percentage of solved cases out of the total number of crime
incidents handled by law enforcement agencies for a given period of time.

CSE = Solved Crimes x 100%

Crime Volume
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H. Cleared Case - A case shall be considered cleared when at least one of the offers has been
identified; there is sufficient evidence to charge him; and he has been charged before the
prosecutor’s office or any other court of appropriate jurisdiction. Included in this category are solved
cases.

I. Crime Clearance Efficiency (CCE) - Is the percentage of the cleared cases out of the total number of
crime incidents handled by law enforcement agencies for a given period of time.

CCE = CC X 100%
CV

The Police Blotter shall serve as the main source of crime data for submission and shall be the basis
for preparing and accomplishing the Unit Periodic Report and NCRS Form. The Chief of Polce is
primarily responsible for the maintenance of accurate crime data. He must ensure that crime data
are gathered from all sources, such as: Barangay, NBI, PDEA, BFAR, DENR, DSWD, BUCUS, BI, and
other agencies with law enforcement functions in the locality. Accuracy and Integrity of crime
recording processes must be ensured by the Chief of Investigation Section and Crime Registrar.

VICTIMOLOGY

Victimology is a branch of criminology which examine the role played by the victim in a criminal
incident. In simpler terms, it is the study of the victims of the crime.

The criminal justice system spends the bulks of its time and energy trying to control criminals. It was
within this preoccupation of understanding criminal activity and identifying the causes of criminal
behavior that the victim was “rediscovered” in the 1940s. Interestingly, the victim emerged not as an
individual worthy of sympathy or compassion but as possible partner or contributor to his or her
own demise. Student of criminal behavior began to look the relationship between the victim and the
offender in the hopes of better understanding the genesis of the criminal act (Doerner & Lab, 2012).

Of course, there is no way that a victim should be blamed for becoming one. Every individual has the
right to live and to be spared from the risks and harms of a violent crime. Yet, the fact remains that
to understand the offender, one must first understand the victim.

It was the scientist Han von Hentig, a victim of Nazi persecution, who focused criminologist’s
attention to the significance of the victim in criminal activity. His books The Criminal and His Victim
may be said to have founded victimology as a new branch of study.

Goals of Victimology

The study of victimology focuses on five goals:

1. To understand and measure the extent and nature of crime as victims perceive them
2. To assess the relative risk of victimization
3. To appreciate the nature and extent of losses, injuries, and damages experience by victims of
crime
4. To study the relation between victim and offender
5. To investigate the social reaction of the family, community, and society toward the victim of
crime.

General Classes of Victims (Hans von Hentig)

1. The Young - weak by virtue of age and immaturity

2. The Female - often less physically powerful than the male
3. The Old - incapable of physical defense, and the object of confidence schemes
4. The Mentally Defective - unable to think clearly, e.g. the feeble-minded, the insane
5. The Immigrants - unsure of the rules of conduct in surrounding society

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6. The Minority - Racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the agencies of
justice
7. The Dull Normals - the simple-minded person, the “born victims of swindlers”

Psychological Types of Victims (Hans von Hentig)

1. The Depressed - submissive by virtue of emotional condition

2. The Acquisitive or Greedy - always wanting more, looking for quick gain
3. The Wanton or Overly Sensual - ruled by passion and thoughtlessly seeking pleasure, e.g.
promiscuous people
4. The Lonesome - similar to acquisitive type of victim by virtue of wanting companionships or
affection
5. The Heartbroken - those suffering from heartaches and pain
6. The Tormentor - a victim who asked for it, often from his or her own family and friends

Victim Types (Benjamin Mendelsohn)

Another pioneer in the field of victimology was Benjamin Mendelsohn, a European defense lawyer.
In fact he has been referred to as the “father” of victimology, having coined this term. Mendelsohn,
just like von Hentig, was intrigued by the dynamics that take place between victims and offenders.
He came up with his own typology of victims with six categories:

1. Completely Innocent Victim - There is no provocation or facilitating behavior.

2. Victim with Minor Guilt - Victim inadvertently places himself in compromising situation.
3. Victim as Guilty as Offender - Victim was engaging in vice crimes and was hurt, e.g. suicide victim.
4. Victim More Guilty Than Offender - Victim provoked or instigated the causal act.
5. Most Guilty Victim - Victim started off as the offender and was hurt in turn.
6. Imaginary Victim - Victim pretends to be one due to mental disorder.

THE NATURE OF VICTIMIZATTION

Victim Characteristics

Social and demographic characteristics distinguish victims and non-victims. Among them are age,
gender, social status, marital status, race and residence.

 Age - Victim data reveal that young people face a much greater victimization risk than do older
persons.

 Gender - Except from the crimes of rape and sexual assault, males are more likely than females
suffer violent crime. Men are twice as likely as women to experience aggravated assault and
robbery. Women, however, are six times more likely than men to be victims of rape or sexual
assault.

When men are the victims of the violent crime, the perpetrator is a stranger; women are
much more likely to be attacked by a relative than are men. About two-thirds of all attacks against
women are committed by a husband, boyfriend, family member, or acquaintance.

 Social Status - People in the lowest income categories much more likely to become crime victim
than those who are more affluent. Poor individuals most likely the victims of crime because
they live in crime prone areas, such as the slums and urban areas. Although the poor are more
likely to suffer violent crimes, the wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes,
such as pocket picking and purse (bag) snatching.

 Marital Status - Divorced and never-married males and females are victimized more often than
married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk.

 Race - in the U.S., African Americans (Blacks) are more likely than whites to be victims of violent
crimes.

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 Residence - Urban residents are more likely than rural or sub-urban residents to become victims
of crime.

Types of Characteristics That Increase the Potential for Victimization

Three types of characteristics increase the potential for victimization: (Finkelhor and Asigian,
1996)

1. Target vulnerability. Victims’ physical weakness or psychological distress renders them incapable
of resisting or deterring crime and makes them easy targets.

2. Target gratifiability. Some victims have some quality, possession, skill, or attribute that an
offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or manipulate. Having attractive possessions, such as
leather coat, may make one vulnerable to predatory crime.

3. Target antagonism. Some characteristics increase risk because they arouse anger, jealousy, or
destructive impulses in potential offenders. Being gay or effeminate, for example, may bring on
undeserved attacks in the street; being argumentative and alcoholic may provoke assault.

Who Fear Crime?

Survey reveal some of the differences in the public’s fear of crime. Among these differences are the
following:

 Gender - females are more fearful than males,

 Race/Ethnicity - Nonwhites are more fearful than whites.
 Ages - People 30 years old and older are slightly more fearful than people less than 30 years old.
 Religion - Jews are more fearful than Protestants or Catholics.
 Community - People living in urban areas are more fearful than people living in rural areas.
 Region - Easterners and Southerners are more fearful than Westerners and Midwesterners.
 Education - The higher the level of education of a person, the lower is the person’s fear for
crime.
 Income - Fear of crime victimization declines with increasing family income.

Theories of Victimization

For many years’ criminological theories focused on the actions of the criminal offender; the role of
the victim was virtually ignored. In contrast, modern victimization theories already acknowledge that
the victim is not a passive target in crime, but someone whose behavior can influence his or her own
fate.

1. Victim Precipitation Theory - According to this view, some may actually innate the confrontation
that eventually leads to their injury or death. Victim precipitation can be either active or passive.
Active precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even
attack first. Passive precipitation, on the other hand, occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
characteristics that unknowingly threaten or encourage the attacker. The crime can occur because of
personal conflict - for example, when two people compete over a job, promotion, love interest, or
some other scarce and in demand commodity.

2. Lifestyle Theory - According to this theory, people may become crime victims because their
lifestyle increase their exposure to criminal offenders. Victimization risk is increased by such
behaviors as associating with young men, going out in public place late at night, and living in an
urban area. Conversely, one’s chances of victimization can be reduced by staying home at night,
moving to a rural area, staying out of the public places, earning more money and getting married.
People who have high risk lifestyles - drinking, taking drugs, and getting involved in crime - maintain
a much greater chance of victimization. For example, young runaways are at high risk for
victimization; the more time they are exposed to street life, the greater their risk of becoming crime
victims.

During an investigation, victims are classified in three general categories that describes the level
of risk their lifestyle represents in relation to the violent crime that has been committed. The
importance of understanding this in an investigation is directly related back to the level of risk to the
offender during the commission of the crime. This information is important to the investigation to
better understand the sophistication or possible pathology of the offender.

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 High-Risk Victims - Victims in this group have a lifestyle that makes them a higher risk for being
a victim of a violent crime. The most obvious high risk victim is the prostitute. Prostitute place
themselves at risk every single time they go to work. They are of high risk because they get into
a stranger’s car, go to secluded areas with strangers, and for the most part, attempt to conceal
their actions for legal reasons. Offenders often rely on all these factors and specifically target
prostitutes because such conditions lower their chances of becoming suspects in the crime.
Therefore, in this example, the prostitute is a high risk victim creating a lower risk to the
offender.

 Moderate-Risk Victims - Victims that fall into this category are lower risk victims, but for some
reason were in a situation that placed them in a greater level of risk. A person that is stranded
on a dark, secluded highway due to flat tire and accepts a ride from a stranger and is then
victimized, would be a good example of this type of victim level risk.

 Low-Risk Victims - The lifestyle of these individuals would normally not place them in any
degree of risk for becoming a victim of a violent crime. These individuals stay out of trouble, do
not have peers that are criminal, are aware of their surroundings, and attempt to take
precautions so as not to be victimized. They lock the doors, do not use drugs, and do not go into
areas that are dark and secluded.

The chart that follows shows variables that should be considered when gathering information
on a victim.

Gender / Age Interpersonal Life Insurance? Lifestyle:

Relationships: Social, Habits, Frequented
Sexual, Family Locations, Economic
Status
Risk Level How would the victim Mental Stability Physical Handicaps
react to an attack?
Passive / Aggressive?
Future Plans Employment / Income Personality Previous Victimization
Family/Marital Status Friends: Number & Education Alcohol / Drug Use
Type - Enemies
Normal Dress Style Mode of Medical History Criminal Justice System
Transportation History
Leisure Activities/ Dating / Sexual HabitsReputation Likes/ Dislikes/ Fears
Hobbies
Source: http://www.deviantcrimes.com/victimology.html

After all the information has been gathered, a timeline of events leading up to the crime should
be created in order to better understand how this specific individual became a victim of a violent
crime.

3. Deviant Place Theory - According to this theory, victims do no encourage crime but are victim-
prone because they reside in socially disorganized high-crimes areas where they have the greater
risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders.

4. Routine Activity Theory - This theory was first articulated by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson.
They concluded that the volume and distribution of predatory crime (violent crimes against a person
and crimes in which an offender attempts to steal an object directly) are closely related to the
interaction of three variables that reflect the routine activities:

 The availability of suitable targets, such as homes containing easily saleable goods
 The absence of capable guardians, such as police, homeowners, neighbors, friends, and
relatives
 The presence of motivated offenders, such as a large number of unemployed teenagers

Psychological Effects of Victimization

Research in America suggested that crime victims can suffer any of the following reactions:
(Kahn, 1984 as cited by Ainsworth, 2000)

 Depression (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder);

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 Anxiety;
 Paranoia;
 Loss of control;
 Shame;
 Embarrassment;
 Vulnerability;
 Helplessness;
 Humiliation;
 Anger;
 Shock;
 Feelings of inequity;
 Increased awareness of morality;
 Tension; and
 Fear.

Other effects of crime to victims include loss, suffering, fear (fear of others), Obsessive-
compulsive Disorder (extreme preoccupation with certain thoughts and compulsive performance of
certain behaviors), and antisocial behavior. Also, there is growing evidence that people who are
crime victims also seem more likely to commit crime themselves.

Services Provided to Victims

Being at their most vulnerable state after the crime experience, the victims are in need of some
support to easily cope. Some of the services provided to them include:

 Assistance to victims who report crimes

 Responding at the scene of crime in order to provide crisis counseling
 Providing 24 hours telephone hot-line service to victims and witnesses
 Making emergency monetary aid available to victims
 Providing victims with referral services to appropriate agencies
 Helping victims obtain the return of property
 Assisting victims and witnesses throughout their court appearances

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 MODULE 6-9

Name:_____________________________________________ Year & Section:___________________

Address:___________________________________________ Date:___________________________
Instructor:_________________________________________________________________________
_

V. Evaluation:

Multiple Choice
Directions: Read the statement or question very carefully. Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. It is an act committed or omitted in violation of a public law forbidding or commanding it and for
which punishment is imposed upon conviction.
a. Offense
b. Crime
c. Misdeameanor
d. Felony

2. It is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws.

a. Felony
b. Offense
c. Delinquency
d. Misdemeanor

3. It refers to any standard or rule regarding what human beings should or should not think, say or
do under given circumstances.
a. Deviance
b. Crime
c. Norm
d. Misdemeanor

4. Also known as misdemeanor, it is an act in violation of a simple rule or regulation such as a

violation of an ordinance.
a. Infraction
b. Felony
c. Offense
d. Crime

5. For a crime to occur, an offender should have a criminal intent or guilty state of mind. This crime
element is called:
a. Causation
b. Actus reus
c. Concurrence
d. Mens rea

6. This latin terms means “criminal conduct.”

a. Mens rea
b. Culpa
c. Dolo
d. Actus reus

7. According to the Philippine National Police, the three ingrediens of crime are________________.
a. Opportunity, Intrument/s, and Criminal Act
b. Motive, Criminal Act, and Instrument/s
c. Motive, Opportunity, and Instrument/s
d. Motive, Opportunity, and Criminal Act

8. Crime affects almost all members of our society regardless of age, sex, race, nationality, religion,
financial condition, education, and other personal circumstances. In the other words, crime effects
all walks of life. Hence, all of us must be involved in crime prevention and control because:

40
a. Crime is pervasive
b. Crime is reflective
c. Crime is expensive
d. Crime is destructive
9. So many lives and properties have been lost because of crimes. Hence, it is everybody’s business
to prevent and control crimes because:
a. Crime is pervasive
b. Crime is reflective
c. Crime is expensive
d. Crime is destructive

10. Gambling, prostitution, and disorderly conduct fall under this crime category.
a. Public order crimes
b. Property crimes
c. Violent crimes
d. Organized crimes

11. These crimes involve thousands of criminals, working within complex structures and driven by
profit motive.
a. Complex crimes
b. Organized crimes
c. White-collar crimes
d. Complex crimes

12. This term means “evil in itself.”

a. Mala prohibita
b. Culpa
c. Mala in se
d. Mens rea

13. Securities-related crimes, bank frauds, and other cases involving deceit belong to which type of
crime category?
a. Organized crimes
b. Complex crimes
c. Rational crimes
d. White-collar crimes

14. They are otherwise known as “victimless crimes” because they have no direct, complaining
victims.
a. White-collar crimes
b. Public order crimes
c. Economic crimes
d. Organized crimes

15. The offender performs all the acts of execution as a consequence but which nevertheless these
acts do not produce the felony by reason of causes independent of the will of the perpetrator.
a. Attempted felony
b. Frustrated felony
c. Consummated felony
d. Intentional felony

16. He coined the term victimology, through which he earned the title, “father” of this sub-discipline
of criminology.
a. Hans von Hentig
b. Cesare Lombroso
c. Benjamin Mendelsohn
d. Andre Michel Guerry

17. This scientist wrote the book The Criminal and His Victim, which paved the way to understanding
the victim’s role in crime occurrence.
a. Andre Michel Guerry
b. Hans von Hentig
c. Cesare Lombroso
d. Benjamin Mendelsohn

41
18. These victims are unsure of rules of conduct in the surrounding society.
a. The Immigrants
b. The Mentally Defective
c. The Dull Normals
d. The Young

19. Promiscuous persons would fall under this victim typology.

a. The Dull Normals
b. The Tormentor
c. The Depressed
d. The Wanton

20. They are often victims of racial prejudice or unequal treatment by the agencies of justice.
a. The Minorities
b. The Dull Normals
c. The Immigrants
d. The Acquisitive

21. These victims are always wanting for more and looking for quick gains.
a. The Lonesome
b. The Wanton
c. The Acquisitive
d. The Tormentor

22. Widows or widowers would belong to this victim category.

a. The Tormentor
b. The Acquisitive
c. The Wanton
d. The Lonesome

23. They are incapable of physical defense and the object of confidence schemes.
a. The Female
b. The Young
c. The Mentally Defective
d. The Old

24. Suicide victims are of this type.

a. Most Guilty Victim
b. Completely Innocent Victim
c. Victim with Minor Guilt
d. Victim as Guilty as offender

25. There is no provocation or facilitating behavior the part of this victim.

a. Imaginary Victim
b. Victim with Minor Guilt
c. Completely Innocent Victim
d. Victim as Guilty as Offender

26. This type of victim places himself in a compromising situation.

a. Victim with Minor Guilt
b. Completely Innocent Victim
c. Victim as Guilty as Offender
d. Imaginary Victim

27. When the victim provoked or instigated the casual act, he is classified as what victim type?
a. Mostly Guilty Victim
b. Victim More Guilty Than Offender
c. Victim with Minor Guilt
d. Victim as Guilty as Offender

28. What type of victim is one who started off as the offender and was hurt in return?
a. Victim More Guilty Than Offender
b. Most Guilty Victim

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c. Victim as Guilty as Offender
d. Victim with Minor Guilt

29. At times, the victim is one who asked for the act, often frim relatives and friends. What type of
victim is this?
a. The Tormentor
b. The Wanton
c. The Mentally Defective
d. The Acquisitive

30. Anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses increase chances of being victimized. What type of
characteristics does this exemplify?
a. Target Vulnerability
b. Target Gratifiability
c. Target Antagonism
d. Target Hostility

VI. Referrence:

Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of Crimes

Author: Armando A. Alviola, PhD Crim., PhD Educ. Mngt,
Editor: Jannel C. Alviola, Med

Prepared by:

Kenneth Wensley E. Razona, RC

Instructor

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