Forensic Ballistics (Midterm)

Forensic Ballistics x
November 6, 2022
http://science.howstuffworks.com/machine-gun3.htm
randolf guiang November 6, 2022
 Legal Definition
It refers to ammunition as a “loaded shell” for
rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers
and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell
or other missile may be fired by means of
gunpowder or other explosives.
○ National Internal Revenue Code, Chapter VII, Sec. 290
○ Revised Administrative Code, Sec. 877
The term also includes ammunition for air rifles

as mentioned elsewhere in the Code.

 Technical Definition
The term ammunition refers to a group of
cartridges or to a single unit cartridge- meaning a
complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet,
cartridge case, gunpowder and primer.
The term may also refers to a “single round.”

 The term cartridge is derived from the word

“charta,” the Latin word for paper.
 Later on, it came through the French word

“cartouche,” meaning a roll of paper, which
indicates that the origin cartridges were not
brass gliding-metal tipped units which we are
familiar with today.

 Bullet
The projectile propelled through the barrel of a
firearm by means of the expansive force of gases
coming from burning gunpowder.
 Cartridge case
The tubular metallic container for the gunpowder.
Sometimes called “shell” or “casing”.

 Gunpowder
The powder charge which, when ignited by the
primer flash, is converted to heated gas under high
pressure and propels the bullet or shots charge
through the barrel and to the target. Sometimes
called “propellant” or “powder charge”.
 Primer
The metal cup containing the highly sensitive
priming mixture of chemical compound, which
when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite.
Such action is called “percussion”.








Classification of Cartridges
 According to Types of Firearms
 Revolver cartridges
 Pistol cartridges
 Rifle cartridges
 Shotgun cartridges
 According to Location of Primer

 Needle-fire cartridges (obsolete)
 Pin-fire cartridges (obsolete)
 Rim-fire cartridges
 Center-fire cartridges
 According to Caliber

 A bullet is a metallic or non-metallic,

cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm
by means of the expansive force of gases
coming from burning gunpowder.
 A bullet is a solid projectile propelled by a

firearm and is normally made from metal
(usually lead). A bullet (in contrast to a shell)
does not contain explosives, and damages
its target by imparting its kinetic energy upon
impact.

 The word "bullet" is often used loosely to

refer to the combination of bullet, case,
gunpowder and primer; such an item is
properly called a cartridge, or round.
 "Bullet" is derived from the French word

"boulette" which roughly means "little ball".

The First Bullets

 The history of bullets parallels the history of firearms.
Advances in one either resulted from or precipitated
advances in the other. Originally, bullets were round
metallic or stone balls placed in front of an explosive
charge of gun powder at the end of a closed tube.
 As firearms became more technologically advanced,

from 1500 to 1800, the bullets changed little. They
remained simple round lead balls, differing only in
their size.

Projectiles for the Early Guns

 The very first cannon fired arrows, simply
because the arrow was the most familiar
projectile. The shaft had to be found with
rags to make it fit the gun barrel.
 Later came stone shot, since stone was
freely available, easily worked into shape
and did not strain the gun.
 Stronger guns allowed the use of metal
shot. While this meant casting and more
expense, spent shot could sometimes be
retrieved and re-used.
 Chaining two shot together was an effective
anti-personnel weapon.
 Langridge was the term used to describe the
collection of scrap metal, horse-shoe nails,
gravel and anything else calculated to
wound, loaded into the gun.

 These mid-19th century paper

 These lead bullets were cartridges were manufactures by
made for the 19th century Ely Brothers, the famous London
percussion revolvers. ammunition firm.
Shaped Bullets
 Captain John Norton of the British Army in 1823
 Norton's bullet had a hollow base which expanded under
pressure to catch the rifling grooves once fired but the British
Board of Ordnance rejected it because spherical bullets had
been in use for the last 300 years.
 William Greener, renowned English gunsmith

invented the Greener bullet in 1836.
 It was very similar to Norton's bullet except that the hollow
base of the bullet was fitted with a wooden plug which more
reliably forced the base of the bullet to expand and catch the
rifling. Tests proved that Greener's bullet was extremely
effective but it was rejected because, being two parts, it was
judged too complicated to produce.

 Claude Étienne Minié (1814? - 1879), a captain in

the French Army.
 The soft lead bullet that came to be known as the Minié ball,
(or minnie ball) was first introduced in 1847.
 It was nearly identical to the Greener bullet: as designed by
Minié the bullet was conical in shape with a hollow cavity in
the rear end, which was fitted with a little iron cap instead of
a wooden plug. When fired, the cap would force itself into
the hollow cavity, forcing the sides of the bullet to expand
and engage the rifling. In 1855 the British adopted the Minié
ball for their Enfield rifles.
 It was in the American Civil War, however, that the Minié ball
saw the most use. Roughly 90% of the battlefield casualties
in the war were caused by Minié balls fired from rifles.

 Sir Joseph Whitworth (Between 1854 and 1857)

 Conducted a long series of rifle experiments, and proved,
among other points, the advantages of a smaller bore
and, in particular, of an elongated bullet.
 W. E. Metford (About 1862 and later)

 Carried out an exhaustive series of experiments on bullets
and rifling, and had invented the important system of light
rifling with increasing spiral, and a hardened bullet.
 The combined result of the above inventions was that in
December 1888 the Lee Metford small-bore (0.303") rifle,
was finally adopted for the British army. The Lee-Metford
was the predecessor of the Lee-Enfield.
0.303 inch
centrefire, rimmed ammunition
The Modern Bullet

 The next important change in the history of the rifle
bullet occurred in 1883, when Major Rubin, director
of the Swiss Laboratory at Thun, invented the small-
calibre rifle, one of whose essential features was the
employment of an elongated compound bullet, with a
lead core in a copper envelope called a jacket.
 The copper jacketed bullet allows much higher

muzzle velocities than lead alone, as copper has a
much higher melting point, greater specific heat
capacity, and is harder. Lead bullets fired at high
velocity may suffer surface melting due to hot gases
behind and friction with the bore.

Types of Bullets
 Lead: Simple cast, extruded, swaged, or otherwise
fabricated lead slugs are the simplest form of bullets.
At speeds of greater than 300 m/s (1000 ft/s)
(common in most handguns), lead is deposited in
rifled bores at an ever increasing rate.
 Jacketed Lead: Bullets intended for high-velocity
applications generally have a lead core jacketed or
plated with cupro-nickel, copper alloys, or steel; the
thin layer of copper protects the lead core during
flight, delivering it intact to the target.
 Full Metal Jacket bullets have the front and sides of the
bullet completely encased in the jacket.
 Some bullet jackets do not extend to the front of the bullet to
aid in expansion. These are called soft points or hollow
points.
 Armor Piercing (black nose): Jacketed designs

where the core material is a very hard, high-density
metal such as tungsten, tungsten carbide, depleted
uranium, or steel. A pointed tip is often used, but a
flat tip on the penetrator portion is generally more
effective.
 Tracer (red/orange): These have a hollow back, filled
with a flare material. Usually this is a mixture of
magnesium perchlorate, and strontium salts to yield
a bright red color.
 Tracer material burns out after a certain amount of time.
Such ammunition is useful to the shooter as a means of
verifying how close the point of aim is to the actual point of
impact.

 Incendiary (blue): These bullets are made with an

explosive or flammable mixture in the tip which is
designed to ignite on contact with a target. The intent
is to ignite fuel in the target area and add to the
destructive power of the bullet itself.
 Frangible: Designed to disintegrate into tiny particles

upon impact to minimize their penetration for
reasons of range safety, to limit environmental
impact, or to limit the danger behind the intended
target. An example is the Glaser Safety Slug.

 Non Toxic: Bismuth, tungsten, steel, and other exotic

bullet alloys prevent release of toxic lead into the
environment. Regulations in several countries
mandate the use of non-toxic projectiles especially
when used against waterfowl.
 Practice: Made from lightweight materials like rubber,

Wax, wood, plastic, or lightweight metal bullets are
intended for short-range target work. Because of
their weight and low velocity, they have limited
range.

 Less Lethal, or Less than Lethal: Rubber bullets,

plastic bullets, and beanbags are designed to be
non-lethal, for example for use in riot control. They
are generally low velocity and fired from shotguns,
grenade launchers, paintball guns, or specially
designed devices.
 Blank: Wax, paper, plastic, and other materials are

used to simulate live gunfire and are intended only to
hold back the powder in a blank cartridge and
produce noise. Some blank cartridges are crimped or
closed at the end and do not have any plug material.

 Bullet Bases can be made in the flat (FB),

dish base (DB), cup base (CB), hollow base
(HB), heel base (no abbreviation used),
boattail (BT), and the superior rebated
boattail (RBT). Corbin does not make the
standard BT but only the RBT, which offers
about 15% better accuracy due to less
muzzle blast induced dispersion, better barrel
life, less gas cutting in some loads, and far
longer tooling life.




 The HB shape is typically used on lead

handgun bullets, or on large calibers where
the weight would be excessive if the bullet
were very long with a solid base.
 Shotgun slugs, airgun pellets, and other
projectiles that need to conform to the bore
easily, or need to have the stability
guaranteed over a moderate to short range,
often are made in a hollow base design.










Controversial bullet from the John F. Kennedy assassination

 Is a tubular metallic or non-metallic

container which holds together the bullet,
gunpowder and primer.
 The portion of the cartridge that is
automatically ejected from the automatic
firearm during firing and this remains at the
scene of the crime.
 This is the firearm evidence that can help
trace a particular firearm from which it is
fired.

 Holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer

assembled into one unit;
 Serves as the waterproof container of the
gun powder; and
 Prevents the escape of the gases to the rear
as the sidewalls of the cartridge case (serves
as a ‘gas seal’ at the breech end of the
barrel.)

 Rim
 Serves the purpose of limiting the forward travel
of cartridges into their chambers and thus also
limit the clearance, if any, between the heads
and the supporting.
 Primer Pocket
 Holds primer securely in central position. It
provides a means to prevent the escape of the
gas to the rear of the cartridge. It also provides a
solid support for primer anvils, without which, the
latter could not be fired.

 Vent or Flash Hole

 It is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer
pocket through which the primer flash provides
ignition to the powder charge. It is the ‘opening
or canal ‘ that connects the priming mixture with
gunpowder.
 Head and Body
 Constitute the corks that plug the breech of the
barrel against the escape of the gas.
 Neck
 The part of the cartridge case that is occupied by
the bullet.

 Cannelures
 These are the serrated grooves that are
sometimes found rolled into the necks and bodies
of the cases at the location of the bases of the
bullet to prevent the bullet from being pushed back
or loosened.
 Crimp
 The part of the mouth of a case that is turned in
upon the bullet. It aids in holding the bullet in place
and it offers resistance to the movement of the
bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of
the gunpowder.

 Base
 The bottom portion of the case which holds the
primer which contains the priming mixture and
the shell head which contains the head stamp,
caliber and the year of manufacture.
 Shoulder
 The portion which supports the neck.
 Extracting Groove
 The circular groove near the base of the shell
designed for the automatic withdrawal of the
case after each firing.




Rimmed cartridges are well suited to certain types

of actions, such as revolvers and break-open
single shot firearms, but work poorly in firearms
that feed from a box magazine.
Some types of rimmed cartridges, the rimfires,
also use the rim to contain the priming compound
used to ignite the cartridge.
The rimmed type is generally designed for
revolvers and carbines.




The recent (early 2000s) Winchester Short

Magnum, Winchester Super Short Magnum, and
Remington Ultra Magnum and Short Action Ultra
Magnum families of rifle cartridges also feature
rebated rims. In these cases, the rim was
designed to fit bolt faces for existing magnum
rifles, but the case was made wider to allow a
greater powder capacity


 The primer is that portion of the cartridge

which consist of a brass or a gilding metal
cup. The cup contains a highly sensitive
mixture of chemical compound, which when
struck by the firing pin would detonate or
ignite. Such action is called “ percussion”.

 Alexander John Forsyth is credited with

being the first to conceive the idea of using
detonating compounds for igniting powder
charges in small arms by “percussion” and in
1807 he obtained a patent for this idea.
 His first successful priming mixture was
composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal
and sulphur in powdered form.

 Primer cup- the container of the priming

mixture. This is made of brass, gilding metal
or copper, depending upon the kind.
 Priming mixture- the highly sensitive
chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.
This priming chemical varies in composition
depending upon the manufacturer.

 Anvil- that portion of the primer against which

the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from
the firing pin. This must be hard, rigid and
firmly supported to provide the resistance
necessary for firing the priming mixture.
 Disc- piece of small paper or disk of tin foil
which is pressed over the priming mixture, its
purpose is:
(a) to hold priming mixture in place
(b) to exclude moisture


 The initiator is a percussion-sensitive primary

explosive that will detonate when struck
sharply;
 The fuel provides gas pressure and
sustained heat; and
 The oxidizer provides extra oxygen to
support burning in the closed case.
 In addition, the compound normally contains
finely-powdered aluminum to throw incandescent
particles into the propellant to insure complete
ignition.
 Priming compounds are divided into two

classes:
(a) Corrosive
One of the chemicals in corrosive
primers is potassium chlorate, which in
ignition, produces potassium chloride.
Potassium chloride draws moisture from the
air, and this moisture speeds the rusting and
corrosion in gun barrels.

(b) Non-corrosive
Advances in “primer” chemistry over
the years have produced new compositions
in which the potassium chlorate has been
eliminated by the substitution of other
chemicals. These newer primers are of the
non-corrosive type and have practically
replaced the corrosive type.

 Potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel)……..45%

 Antimony sulphide (element & fuel)……..….23%
 Fulminate of mercury (initiator)……………….32%
Basically, the above are the “ingredients” of a
typical mercuric priming mixture. In such a mixture,
the fulminate of mercury is the initiator, the
potassium chlorate acts both as an initiator and a
fuel, and the antimony sulphide is the frictional
element and fuel.

 Sulphur………………………………….21.97%
 Potassium Chlorate……………………47.20%
 Antimony Sulphide…………………….30.83%

 Potassium Chlorate……………………….53%
 Antimony Sulphide………………………...17%
 Lead sulpho-cyanide………………………25%
 Tri-nitro-toluol (T.N.T)……………………..5%
In May 1917, troubles began with misfire in
the Frankford Arsenal Service Ammunition, and so
the Ordinance Department directed Frankford
Arsenal to adopt and use the Winchester Repeating
Arms Company’s primer.

 Potassium Chlorate…………………….41.44%
 Antimony Sulphide……………………….9.53%
 Copper Sulpho-cyanide…………………4.70%
 Ground Glass…………………..………..44.33%
Obtained by chemical analysis in the Frankford
Arsenal Laboratories

 Fulminate of Mercury……..……………….39%
 Barium Nitrate………………………………41%
 Antimony Sulphide………………….……….9%
 Picric Acid…………………………………….5%
 Ground Glass………………………………...6%

 Fulminate of Mercury…………………..….40%
 Barium Nitrate……………………..……….25%
 Antimony Sulphide………………..………..25%
 Barium Carbonate…………………………...6%
 Ground Glass……………………………..….4%
The Swiss Army had been using non-

corrosive primer since about 1911.
This was based on the formula of Swiss
inventor ZIEGLER.

 Broad classes of cartridge priming systems

Berdan's system was little more than a percussion
cap built to fit in the case head. The priming
system developed by Hiram Berdan
○ The anvil, the metal part that lets the priming mix
be pinched by the firing pin, was built into the
cartridge case. It stood in the center of the
primer pocket.
○ However, Berdan priming was not "reloader-
friendly."

In 1866, a British ordinance officer named Edward

Boxer had developed a new system that moved
the anvil from the case to the primer. (Boxer type)
○ Now the reloader could easily push out the
spent primer with a thin punch. Ammunition
assembled in reloadable Boxer cases were
offered for those who wanted to reload their
cartridge.
Battery cup type is usually used for shotgun shells
and simply a variation of boxer type





 Gunpowder, whether black powder or

smokeless powder, is a substance that burns
very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a
propellant in firearms.
 Both forms of gunpowder are low explosives.
As it burns, a subsonic deflagration wave is
produced rather than the supersonic
detonation wave which high explosives
produce. As a result, pressures generated
inside a gun are sufficient to propel a bullet,
but not sufficient to destroy the barrel.

 Gunpowder was the first explosive known.

 The formula for gunpowder appears in the
writings of the 13th-century English monk
Roger Bacon, it seems to have been
discovered by the Chinese, who had used it
in firecrackers several hundred years before
his time. Gunpowder was probably
introduced into Europe from the Middle East.
 Berthold Schwarz, a German monk of the
early 14th century, may have been the first
person to employ gunpowder for propelling a
projectile.
 Black Powder is a mixture of saltpeter

(potassium nitrate or, less frequently, sodium
nitrate), charcoal and sulfur with a ratio (by
weight) of approximately15:3:2 respectively.
The ratio has changed over the centuries of
its use, and can be altered somewhat
depending on the purpose of the powder.

 Unlike smokeless propellants, it acts more

like an explosive since its burn rate is not
affected by pressure, but it is a very poor
explosive because it has a very slow
decomposition rate and therefore a very low
brisance.
 The lack of brisance keeps the black powder
from shattering the barrel, and directs the
energy to propel the bullet.

 The main disadvantages of black powder are

relatively low energy density (compared to
modern smokeless powders) and the
extremely large quantities of soot left behind.
During the combustion process, less than
half of black powder is converted to gas. The
rest ends up as a thick layer of soot inside
the barrel and a dense cloud of white smoke.
 The thick smoke of black powder is also a
tactical disadvantage, as it can quickly
become so opaque as to impair aiming.

 One of the advantages of black powder is

that precise loading of the charge is not as
vital as with smokeless powder firearms and
is carried out using volumetric measures
rather than precise weight. However,
overloading causing damage to a gun and its
shooter is still possible.
 A full charge of black powder seated by just a
small wad of paper, with no bullet, will still
burn just as quickly as if it had a full weight
bullet in front of it. This makes black powder
well suited for blank rounds, signal flares,
and rescue line launches.
 Brown Powder (semi-smokeless) is an

explosive agent similar to black powder, but
with a slower (and therefore gentler) burning
rate. This difference is achieved by
incorporating fuel ingredients that are in a
less-reactive state; the pulverized and fully
processed charcoal (elemental carbon) in
black powder provides its distinctive color
while its replacement with a different
substance produces a more reflective
powder, hence its own namesake color.

 For pure explosive damage, high burn rates

or detonation speeds (and accompanying
brisance) are generally preferable, but in
guns and especially cannons, slower-burning
powder decreases firing stresses. This allows
for lighter, longer (and more accurate) barrels
with associated decreases in production and
maintenance costs.


 Single Base Propellant or Nitrocellulose:

Nitrocellulose is the only energetic material.
Contains only pure nitroglycerine gelatinized
with nitrocellulose.
 Double Base Propellant: Contains
Nitroglycerine and cellulose mixed with other
materials. Such as Vaseline phthalate esters,
centralite and inorganic salts.

 Triple Base Propellant: Contain

nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and
nitroguanidine. Triple base smokeless
powders are used only as propellants in
artillery ammunition. (Forensic Science : An
introduction to scientific and investigative techniques:
Stuart H. James & Jon J. Nordby)

 Small Square
 Flakes
 Disc
 Strips
 Pellets or Perforated Cylinders

 It is necessary for the prosecutor or the fiscal

to be able to present his evidence in such a
manner where he can give the court a
complete and clear picture of the crime and
its commission.
 A thorough understanding of physical
evidence, its protection, preservation and
examination are necessary if this important
duty is to be performed.
 It is imperative on the part of every trained police

investigator to recognize properly those physical
evidences that might have come out from the use
of firearms.
 At the scene of the crime, the investigator must
exercise keen observation and extreme care in
his search for these physical evidences or
ballistic exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells,
firearm(s) and allied items or objects.

 The success of the case will depend

heavily on how the investigator conducts
himself in handling these ballistics exhibits.
He has to do his job well at the “proper
time” and at the “proper place”.
Proper time - refers to when he is right there in
the scene.
Proper place - refers to right there at the scene.

 It is important therefore that the investigator

be familiar with the modern techniques in the
proper recognition, collection, marking,
preservation and transmittal of these physical
evidences.

1. When collecting physical evidence, the

officer or investigator should collect all
articles, which are, or may be in some future
date, be of value as evidence.
2. Generally, these articles will consist of the
following:
a. any physical object which may tend to show,
indicate, or not, a crime was committed; and
b. anything which may connect some particular
person with the crime or crime scene.

3. Examples of the above are:

a. lethal weapon or fatal gun
b. fired bullet/s
c. fired shell/s
d. metal fragments
e. broken glass or those allied items or objects
f. holster
g. magazine (for automatic weapon)
h. cartridge/s
i. Gloves
j. Masks
4. Where possible, designate one of the

officers investigating the crime to collect
ALL evidence.
a. This makes the introduction of the exhibits in
court simpler.
b. Also, one officer will usually keep records, and
remember where, when, and what was
collected, much better than if several men
have handled the same exhibits.

5. Great care should be exercised when

collecting physical evidence. Be sure that
you “DON’T MAC” the evidence.
M- mutilate the evidence
A- alter the very nature of the evidence
C- contaminate the evidence

a. In no case should the evidence be mutilated in

any way, such as crashing. This should be
avoided.
b. In no case should the evidence be altered in any
way that may changed its original nature. If
alterations of the evidence do occur, the officer
or investigator should note down in his report
why this happened.
c. And finally, in no case should the evidence be
contaminated that is adding anything which may
change the very nature of the physical evidence.

6. Where necessary, sketch and photograph

the crime scene.
7. Photograph should be taken of the victim

and all other suitable articles like weapon,
bullets, shells, bullet holes, before removing
them.

8. There will be times when fired bullets are

lodged in walls, furniture, wood trims, or
even trees. In such cases, extreme care
must be exercised in removing this
evidence. Never probe or attempt to dig out
the evidence so as not to touch it with
anything that would scratch or mark it.

 In the case of wood or trees, it is better to

split open the wood along the grain until
the bullet falls off. If this cannot be done,
bring a section of the wood or tree to the
laboratory intact and will be removed in
the laboratory.

9. If the bullet has broken into many

fragments as possible. These fragments
can at times be fitted together and also aid
in some other ways.
10.When a firearm is found at the scene of

the crime, the investigator should take
note of the following pertinent facts or
features about the firearm:

a. Type of firearm- whether pistol, revolver, rifle or

shotgun.
b. Caliber of the firearm
c. Serial number of the firearm
d. Load in the cylinder, if revolver; or load in the
magazine, if pistol
e. Position of the firearm relative to the body at the
scene
f. Other distinct or significant features- nickel plated
barrel, fancy decorations or designs, etc.

11.When a bullet/s is/are found at the scene

of the crime, the following should be noted
down:
a. Type of bullet- lead or jacketed
b. Caliber of the bullet
c. Shape or form of the bullet- round nose, flat
nose, pointed, etc
d. Other metal or bullet fragments
e. Place of recovery and date of recovery.

 Remember always that the investigator

cannot completely rely on his memory, so it
is necessary that he notes down every little
bit of information regarding physical
evidence. The investigator will surely find
that things are important when the proper
times comes at the proper place – during
the trial of the case, at the witness stand
when he testifies.

 When collecting firearm/s at the crime

scene, extra caution should be taken by
the collecting officer. In the old police
methods, it is stated that suspected firearm
or fatal gun should be picked by inserting a
rod or pencil into the bore of the firearm.
This procedure is no longer practiced or
adapted in the modern scientific techniques
of crime detection because of the following
dangers:

1. Inserting a rod or pencil into the bore of a

firearm may introduce foreign matters
( dust or dirt) into the bore, adding markings on
the test bullets that will subsequently be fired in
the laboratory through the same bore.
2. When rod or pencil is inserted into the bore of

a suspected firearm, the rod itself might disturb
the powder fouling inside the bore. This
powder fouling are very important to the
chemist in determining whether or not a
suspected firearm was recently fired.

3. A metallic rod might cause scratches inside the

bore and these scratches might cause
additional striations on the cylindrical surfaces
of the test bullets that will subsequently be
fired in the laboratory through the same gun.

 At the scene, the firearm should be picked

up by the investigator using handkerchief
or small wire inserted through the “trigger
guard” of the firearm. Be sure that in
picking up the suspected firearm, the
muzzle end of the barrel is not pointed
towards the person picking it up, nor it is
pointed to anyone in the vicinity.

 More so, if it is a revolver and this revolver

is in full “cocked” position- meaning that the
hammer is pulled back completely into a
ready position for firing. There is always
danger of a little amount of “jarring” when
picking it up as the gun might fire, causing
additional shooting or incident.

 There is one complete practical caution that

can be exercised when one is picking up a
“cocked” firearm. After picking up the
revolver by inserting a handkerchief or string
through the “trigger guard”, a piece of
crumpled paper or cartoon may be placed
just in front of the hammer- on the front area
of the firing pin stop, after which the trigger
should be checked. This is done to avoid
accidental or unnecessary firing.


 Reaming
In this process some of the scars or scratches
left by the drilling operation are remove. The
reamer removes metal from the entire surface
because it is slightly larger in diameter than the
drill which completes the bore operations. It
includes roughly, finishing and burnishing
reamer to have smooth bore barrel.

 Rifling
This is the process necessary for the making of
the helical grooves inside the barrel and such
can be performed in any of the following
methods:
○ Hook-cutter system
○ Scrape-cutter system
○ Broaching system
○ Button system

 Lapping
This is the polishing operation in which a lead plug
closely fitting the inside of the barrel is drawn back
and forth on a rod carrying with is a polishing
compound. This will remove large imperfection on
the inside surface of the barrel both to the lands
and grooves.
What is important about this process is that no
matter how many times we polish or finish, large
imperfections maybe eliminated but not the minute
imperfection which serve as the basis for firearms
identification.

Microscopic view of imperfections Rifling on a fired bullet

in the rifling of a barrel

 Another face of firearms manufacture that is

important in the field of firearms identification
is the finishing operations on the breech
face. This is the portion of the firearm against
which the shell or the cartridge case and the
primer are forced backwards when a
cartridge is fired in the chamber.

 As this occurs, the primer and the base of

the shell , will be imprinted with the tool
markings on the breech face of the firearm.
 Naturally, when a soft surface comes in
contact with a harder surface under
tremendous pressure, the soft surface is
left with the toll marks from the hard
surface.

Comparison of the breechface impressions

on two cartridge cases showing similarity
of microscopic characteristics:
a positive identification

 Nowadays, we need to have a concrete basis

for an opinion of a fact before accepting it.
What then is the basis for firearms
identification? To answer this question,
following are cited:
Firearms identification is actually a refined tool
marks identification.
The natural wear and tear of the tools is involved.

When soft surface comes in contact with a hard

surface, the soft surface is left with impressions or
striations from any irregularities on the hard
surface.
The fact that no two things are absolutely identical.

 Intentional or design characteristics that would

be common to a particular group or family of
items.
 Characteristics that are determinable even
prior to the manufacture of the firearms. These
characteristics are factory specifications and
within the control of man. These serve as basis
for identifying a certain group or class of
firearms. Examples are:

Bore Diameter (caliber) – the diameter in which

the bore was reamed. It is the distance measured
between two opposite lands inside the bore.
Number of lands and grooves – the number of
lands and grooves inside the bore of a firearm are
always the same.
A. Lands – elevated portions.
B. Grooves – the depressed portions.

Width of lands – land width is dependent on the

bore diameter, groove width and number. The
lands are a “reminder” of the circumference after
subtracting all the groove widths.
Width of grooves – groove width is measured as
the “shortest” distance between the two sides or
edges of a groove.
Direction of twist – the rifling inside the gun
barrel may twist either to the right or left.

Pitch of rifling – it is a measure of the twisting of

the lands and grooves. It refers to the “distance”
advanced by the riflings in one complete run
(360 degrees).
Depth of grooves – groove depth in the bore is
measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are
usually a few thousands of an inch deep. It is
equal to the “height” of the side of a “land”.

 Steyer type
Rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right
twist, width of the land and groove are equal
(4RG=L).
 Carbine type
Rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right
twist, the width of the groove is two (2) times the
width of the land (4RG2X).

 Smith & Wesson

Rifling having five (5) lands and grooves, right
twist, the width of the land and groove are equal
(5RG=L).
 Colt
Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist,
the width of the groove is two (2) times the width of
the lands (6LG2X).

 Browning
Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right twist,
the width of the groove is two (2) times the width of
the lands (6RG2X).
 Webley
Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right
twist, the width of the groove is three (3) times the
width of the land (7RG3X).

 Winchester
Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right twist,
the groove is three (3) times the width of the land
(6RG3X).

 Marks produced by the random imperfections

or irregularities of tool surfaces. These random
imperfections or irregularities are produced
incidental to manufacture and/or caused by
use, corrosion, or damage. They are unique to
that tool and distinguish it from all other tools.
 These characteristics are generally found in
the interior surface of the gun barrel and the
breech face.

 The transfer of individual characteristics from a

firearm to the ammunition components passing
through it is what makes firearms identification
possible.
 The successful identification of firearms from
discharged bullets and empty cartridge case is
dependent on a basic principle: there is no
duplication in nature and exceptions to the rule
are never manifested as the result of man’s
ingenuinity.

 Science has demonstrated the undeniable

fact that regardless of how similar any related
objects may appear to the unaided sense, a
more exhaustive study will reveal many
dissimilarities.

 Land marks
Marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact
to the elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the
firearm. This is considered as one of the most
important mark found on a fired bullet used for
the purpose of identification.
 Groove marks
Marks found on a fired bullet caused by the
grooves.

 Skid marks
Marks that are generally found on the fired bullet
from a revolver. It is more of less located at the
anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its
forward movement from the chamber to the
barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.
 Slippage marks
Marks found on fired bullets passing through
either on oily or oversize barrel.

 Stripping marks
Marks found on those bullet fired from a “loose-
bore” barrel wherein the rifling are already been
badly worn out.
Worn out in the rifling of the firearms can be
caused by either chemical reaction brought
about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive
use (erosion).

 No two barrels are microscopically alike or

identical as the internal surface of the bore
and barrels all posses individual and
characteristic markings of their own.
 When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel,
it becomes engraved by the riflings and these
engravings will vary in its minute details with
every individual firearm.
 Every barrel leaves its “thumb mark” or
“fingerprint” on every bullet on it.
 Firing pin mark

Marks generally found at the base portion of the
cartridge case more specifically near the center of
the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the
rim cavity of a rimmed fire cartridge.
Considered as one of the most important marks for
identification of firearms using fired shell.

 Breech face mark

Mark found at the base portion of the shell cause
by the backward movement to the breech face of
the block of the firearm.
Also one of the most important marks in shell
identification.
 Extractor mark
Mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the
fired cartridge shell, cause by its withdrawal from
the chamber.
 Ejector mark
Mark generally found on cartridge case fired
from an automatic firearms. It is located near the
rim of the case cause by the throwing of shell
from the firearm to the area of shooting.
 Shearing mark
Sometimes called secondary “firing pin mark”
found on the primer near the firing pin mark.

 Magazine lip mark

Marking found at the two sides of the rim cause
by the magazine lips during the loading of the
cartridge into the magazine for firing.
 Chamber mark
Marks mostly found around the body of the fired
cartridge case cause by the irregularities of nips
inside the walls of the chamber.

 In fired cartridge case either of the firing pin

mark and the breech face marks can be used
s basis for identification.
 In the absence or non-use of these two, both
the ejector and extractor marks can be
utilized as secondary choice.

 If recovered, cartridge cases are often

easier to identify than bullets.
First, the parts of a firearm that produce marks
on cartridge cases are less subject to long-term
wear, and
Second, bullets are often severely deformed on
impact, destroying much of the markings they
acquire.

 The breech face and firing pin of every single

firearm have microscopic individualities of
their own.
 Every firearm leaves its “thumb mark” or
“fingerprint on every cartridge it fires.
 The whole principle of identification of shell is
predicated or based on the fact that since the
breech face of every weapon must be
individually distinct, the cartridge cases which
it fires is imprinted with this individuality.
 The seven problems are the summary of the

work objectives in the field of firearm
identification.
 These serve as a general guide to every
examiner in determining the course of action
to be undertaken depending on the situation
and evidence at hand and in the end to serve
the ends of justice.

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber

and the type and make of firearm from
which it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber
and the type and make of firearm from
which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected
firearm to determine whether or not the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected
firearm.

4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm

to determine whether or not the fired shell
was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets to determine
whether or not they were fired from one and
the same firearm.
6. Given two or more fired shells to determine
whether or not they were fired from one and
the same firearm.
7. Given a suspected firearm to determine
whether it is serviceable or not.
 Bullets collected for comparison to a

specific firearm are examined first to see if
they are of a caliber that could have been
fired from the submitted firearm.
 They are then examined to determine if the
pattern of rifling impressions found on the
bullet match the pattern of rifling contained
in the barrel of the questioned firearm.

 If these class characteristics agree the next

step is to try to make a positive match
between the individual characteristics that
may have transferred to the bullet from the
barrel.
 Located within the rifling impressions on a
bullet can be microscopic striations or
scratches like those seen on the bullet on the
next slide. They sort of look like a bar code
don't they?
 Imperfections in the surface of the interior of

the barrel leave striations on the projectiles.
 Striations have the potential to be
consistently reproduced in a unique pattern
on every bullet that passes down the barrel
of a firearm. The key word in the previous
sentence is unique.
Results

 When comparisons are made between

firearms and fired ammunition the results can
read as follows:
 Exhibit 1 (bullet) was identified as having
been fired from Exhibit 2 (revolver).
This conclusion is reached after all class
characteristics agree and a sufficient correlation
between individual characteristics is found.

 Exhibit 1 (bullet) could neither be identified

nor eliminated as having been fired from
Exhibit 2 (revolver). All comparisons were
inconclusive.
This conclusion is reached if class characteristics
agree but there is an insufficient correlation
between individual characteristics.
 Exhibit 1 (bullet) was not fired from Exhibit 2
(revolver).
This conclusion is reached if class characteristics
disagree.
 In some cases, a firearm may not be

recovered for comparison. When this
happens firearm examiners can examine
bullets for general rifling characteristics
(GRC) in an attempt to determine what
brands of firearms from which the bullet
may have been fired.

 Like bullets, cartridge cases can be identified

as having been fired by a specific firearm. As
soon as cartridges are loaded into a firearm
the potential for the transfer of unique tool
marks exists.
 However, the cartridge does not have to be
fired for these marks to be transferred. Simply
loading a cartridge into a firearm can cause
unique identifiable marks that can be later
identified.
 Tool marks produced on the cartridge

cases will be in two basic forms. As the
microscopic striations found on bullets,
cartridge cases can pick up striated action
marks. These "scratches" are produced
when the cartridge case moves laterally
against the tool (inner surface of the
firearm) producing a scrape or striated
mark.

 The other form of marks that can be left on

a cartridge case are impressed action
marks. Impressed marks are created on
cartridge cases when it impacts the tool
(again, the firearm) with adequate velocity
or pressure to leave an impressed or
indented mark.

 Cartridge cases are compared to fired

standards from a firearm using a
comparison microscope as described on
the bullet identification page. Standards
are first examined to determine what
marks, if any, the firearm is consistently
reproducing. Evidence cartridge cases are
then directly compared to the standards to
see if they too are also similarly marked.

Results
 Cartridge case comparison results may be
reported as follows:
 Exhibit 1 (cartridge case) was identified as
having been fired by Exhibit 2 (firearm).
The above conclusion is reached if the action
marks present on the questioned cartridge case
are determined to be because of the actual firing
process. An example of which can be breech
marks as seen in the comparison image below.


 Exhibit 1 (cartridge case) could neither be

identified nor eliminated as having been fired
by Exhibit 2 (firearm).
The above conclusion is reached if the cartridge
case lacks sufficient action marks to be identified
as having been fired by the questioned firearm or
the firearm in question fails to produce
reproducible individual characteristics on
standards. All general class characteristics such
as caliber and firing pin shape would have to
agree.

 The image below shows a comparison between

two cartridge cases that lack any individual
characteristics but have a similar general
appearance.

 Exhibit 1 (cartridge case) was not fired by

Exhibit 2 (firearm).
This conclusion can sometimes be reached when
the submitted cartridge case exhibits very good
individual characteristics that are very dissimilar to
those produced on standards.
However, consideration must be given to the
possibility that the firearm in question could have
changed significantly. If all dissimilarities can be
accounted for, a negative conclusion will be
reached.

 The comparison image below shows two

cartridge cases that exhibit noticeably
different breech marks and firing pin
impressions.

 Exhibit 1 (cartridge case) was identified as

having passed through the action of Exhibit 2
(firearm).
This conclusion can be reached if the cartridge
case is found to have action marks that result from
simply loading and/or unloading a cartridge case in
a firearm.
The comparison image below shows striated
action marks on the shoulder of cartridges that
have been loaded and unloaded in a Chinese AK
Type assault rifle.

Striated Action Marks

 Striated action marks are common to
cartridge cases that have passed through
the action of an auto loading or repeating
firearm.
 Striated action marks can be produced on
cartridge cases by contact with a number
of different areas within the firearm.

 Some of the more common striated action

marks include:
chamber marks;
shear marks;
firing pin drag marks;
extractor marks; and
ejector marks.

 Chamber Marks
One of the most common striated action marks are
called chamber marks. Roughness in the
chamber of a firearm can scratch the outer walls of
a cartridge case when loaded and removed from
the chamber. Most chamber marks occur after the
cartridge is fired.

 Shear Marks
Another common striated action marks are shear
marks produced by GLOCK pistols on cartridge
case primers. GLOCK pistols have a rectangular
firing pin hole (below) in their breech face.

 Firing Pin Drag Marks

In a similar process, striated marks called firing pin
drag marks can be produced. When the firing pin
springs forward to strike the primer of a cartridge,
it may remain slightly forward and imbedded in the
primer.

 Extractor Marks
Another action mark, usually found in a striated
form, are those created by the extractor of most
auto-loading or repeating firearms. The extractor
is a small part sometimes resembling a hook that
is used to remove a cartridge or cartridge case
from the chamber of a firearm.

 Ejector Marks
As described above, the extractor pulls the
cartridge case out of the firearm's chamber. As
the cartridge case is pulled to the rear it will be
struck somewhere on an opposing edge by a part
as seen below called the ejector.
The ejector is designed to expel the cartridge case
from the action of the firearm. The resulting
impact of the cartridge case with the ejector will
cause another action mark that can be used as a
means of identification.

Ejector marks can be striated in nature but

a lot of the time they are impressed action
marks.
Impressed Action Marks

 Impressed action marks, with a few
exceptions, are produced when a cartridge
case is fired in a firearm.
 The two most common impressed action
marks are firing pin impressions and
breech marks.
 As mentioned at the end of the Striated
Action Marks page, ejector marks can
also be in the form of an impressed action
mark.

 Firing Pin Impressions

Firing pin impressions are indentations created
when the firing pin of a firearm strikes the primer of
center fire cartridge case or the rim of a rim fire
cartridge case. If the nose of the firing pin has
manufacturing imperfections or damage, these
potentially unique characteristics can be
impressed into the metal of the primer or rim of the
cartridge case.

Light firing pin

impressions
Rim fire
cartridge cases
Center fire
cartridge cases
Evidence cartridge case (left)
Standard from a suspected firearm (right)

 Breech Marks
By far the most common impressed action marks
on cartridge cases are breech marks.
Most fired cartridge cases are identified as having
been fired by a specific firearm through the
identification of breech marks.
Mottled appearance Parallel Circular

 Ejector Marks
Ejector marks are sometimes created when
cartridges or cartridge cases are ejected from the
action of a firearm.
Ejector marks can be either striated or impressed
but the impressed ejector marks not only can be
used to identify a cartridge case as having passed
through a firearm's action.
They can also be an indication that the cartridge
case was fired in the firearm.

Ejector marks like those seen below could only be

reproduced when the cartridge cases were fired in
the firearm and not by simply hand chambering
and ejecting a live cartridge.


Forensic Ballistics (Midterm)

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Forensic Ballistics (Midterm)

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Forensic Ballistics x

The term also includes ammunition for air rifles

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The term may also refers to a “single round.”

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 The term cartridge is derived from the word

 Later on, it came through the French word

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 According to Location of Primer

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 A bullet is a metallic or non-metallic,

 A bullet is a solid projectile propelled by a

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 The word "bullet" is often used loosely to

 "Bullet" is derived from the French word

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The First Bullets

 As firearms became more technologically advanced,

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Projectiles for the Early Guns

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 These mid-19th century paper

 William Greener, renowned English gunsmith

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 Claude Étienne Minié (1814? - 1879), a captain in

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 Sir Joseph Whitworth (Between 1854 and 1857)

 W. E. Metford (About 1862 and later)

The Modern Bullet

 The copper jacketed bullet allows much higher

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 Armor Piercing (black nose): Jacketed designs

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 Incendiary (blue): These bullets are made with an

 Frangible: Designed to disintegrate into tiny particles

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 Non Toxic: Bismuth, tungsten, steel, and other exotic

 Practice: Made from lightweight materials like rubber,

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 Less Lethal, or Less than Lethal: Rubber bullets,

 Blank: Wax, paper, plastic, and other materials are

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 Bullet Bases can be made in the flat (FB),

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 The HB shape is typically used on lead

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