Curriculum

Development
CHAPTER 4
 Chapter 4 discusses the processes for developing
curriculum as presented by different scholars in curriculum
development through their models.
This lesson will also bring you to the various phases of
designing a curriculum. These curriculum development
models have been tried
and tested by the different curriculum developers across the
globe in developing curricula from preschool education to
graduate programs.
The models in this chapter is presented according to
three categories: linear, cyclical and dynamic (Pawilen, 2019)
 Lesson 1. The Six (6) Features of a
Curriculum (Bilbao, 2014)

1. Who The TEACHERS

teaches?
Quality Education requires quality teachers. Good
teachers bring a shining light into the learning
environment. They are ideal companions of the learners.
With the advances in communication technology, good
teachers are needed to sort out the information from the
data that surround the learners.
• These teachers should be given support with
their continuing development in order to keep
abreast with the changing demands of a
learning society.
 2. Who do the teacher teach?
The LEARNERS

The learners are at the center stage in the

educative process. They are the most important
factors in the learning environment. There is no
teaching without them.
Hence, teaching should understand and accept the
learner’s diverse background. Each one of them is a
unique individual.
 They come from different sectors of society
of different cultural background, socio-
economic profile, orientation and varied
experiences.
Hence, their needs should
be addressed and be met that’s why teachers are
to provide learning opportunities and
varied experiences.
 3. Who do the teachers
teach?
Knowledge, Skills, Values

“To help the learners cope with rapid changes to

understand and to succeed
in the new work in the workplace, we must design
a curriculum oriented to tomorrow.”
It should be remembered that what students learn
will be obsolete in ten years, and half
of what they need to know to succeed in work and
in life has not yet been fully
developed and will have to be learned as they go
along in the future.
 2.
The LEARNERS

The learners are at the center stage in the

educative process. They are the most important
factors in the learning environment. There is no
teaching without them.
Hence, teaching should understand and accept the
learner’s diverse background. Each one of them is a
unique individual.
 3. How do Teachers teach?
Strategies and Methods
• Researches show that there is no best strategy
that could work in a million of different student
background and characteristics.
• However, for teachers to teach effectively, they
must use appropriate methodologies, approaches
and strategies “capped with compassionate and
winsome nature”
• Teachers should select teaching methods,
learning activities and instructional materials or
resources appropriate to learners and aligned to
objectives of the lesson.

• Situations should be created to encourage

learners to use higher order thinking skills. Good
teachers utilize information derived from
assessment to improve teaching and learning and
adopt a culture of excellence.
 4. How much of the teaching was
learned?
Performance
• When teachers teach, they formulate objectives
to be accomplished by the learners. A curriculum
should be clear at the beginning with what
knowledge, skills and values should be
developed by the learners.
• At the end of the teaching act, it is necessary
to find out if the objectives set were
accomplished. In curriculum, we call this the
learning outcomes.
• These learning outcomes indicate the
performance of both the teachers and the
learners. Learning outcomes are the product
performance of the learners as a result of
teaching.
 Performance
• When teachers teach, they formulate objectives
to be accomplished by the learners. A curriculum
should be clear at the beginning with what
knowledge, skills and values should be
developed by the learners.
 6. With Whom do we teach?
Community Partners
• Teaching is a collaborative undertaking. While
teachers are the focal point in the learning process,
they must draw upon the resources of their
environment and of their partners to be effective.
Teachers must establish relationship with parents,
NGO’s and their stakeholders.
• Partnership is a means and not an endto be
pursued in itself. An absence of partnership often
means a poor definition of education ends.

• However, associety changes, teachers will have

a new beginning, an opportunity to recast their
role in their communities, to change their attitude
to their communities, and societies about them.
 Approaches to Curriculum Design
(Bilbao 2014)
• These designs are implemented through the different
approaches that are accepted by the teachers and
curriculum practitioners. How the design is utilized
becomes the approach to the curriculum.

• The common approaches to curriculum design

include child or learner_x0002_centered, subject-
centered, problem-centered and human relation-
centered approaches.
 • Child or Learner Centered Approach

This approach to curriculum design is based

on the underlying philosophy that the child is the
center of the educational process. .
 From its design how should a child-centered or
learner-centered curriculum be approached? Let us
consider these:
1. A new respect for the child is fundamental
2. A new freedom of action is provided.
3. The whole activity is divided into units of work.
4. The recognition of the need for using and
exploring many media for self discovery and self-
direction is embraced.
 • Subject-centered approach

Anchored on the curriculum design which

prescribes different and separate subjects into one
broad field, this approach considers the following:
1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which

are detached from life.

3. The continuing pursuit of learning outside the school is not

emphasized. Learning should only take place inside the
classroom.

4. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying

problems in living
 • Problem-centered approach

This approach is based on a curriculum design which

assumes that in the process of living children
experience problems.

Thus, problem solving enables the learner to become

increasely able to achieve
complete or total development as individuals.
This approach is characterized by the following views and
beliefs:
1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves
in resolving problems, thus they become independent learners.

2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic

responsibilities through direct participation in different
activities.

3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of

concerns and problems and in seeking solutions. The learners
are considered problem_x0002_solvers.
 Lesson 2. Different Curriculum Development
Models
Curriculum development models are based on a clear and
consistent understanding of various scholars of the nature
of the curriculum as a discipline and as a field of study.
Different models are described based on the different
views and processes of curriculum development they offer.
In this context, well-known models that are found in major
curriculum books are analysed.
 Let us look at the models of curriculum development and its different
concepts.

Linear Models of Curriculum Development

The linear models of curriculum development
prescribe a rational step-by-step procedure for
curriculum development starting with objectives.
 A. Tyler’s Rational Liner Model

Ralph Tyler developed the first model of curriculum

development. This model was presented in his book
Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in
1949. Tyler argued that curriculum development
should be logical and systematic (Pawilen, 2019).
Tyler argued that to develop a curriculum, curriculum
workers should respond to four basic questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to

attain?
2. What educational experiences are likely to attain
these objectives?
3. How can these educational experiences be organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are
being attained or not?
 B. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model

On the other hand, Hilda Taba in Bilbao, 2008

improved on Tyler’s rationale of making a linear
model.

She believed that teachers who can teach or

implement the curriculum should participate in
developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the
grassroots approach.
In her model, Taba outlined seven
major steps that should be followed in developing the
curriculum.
1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger
society
2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning content
4. Organization of learning content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning activities
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it
 C. Standard-based Curriculum Development Model
Allan Glatthorn developed the standard-based curriculum
development model. The model was intended for developing
curriculum standards for any discipline from basic education
to higher education. Glatthorn identified three phases to be
followed in developing a standards-based curriculum.
This model is and example of of a linear model. It
includes a prescribed sequence of curriculum development
activities to develop standards.
 Phase I. Develop Standards

1. Develop a comprehensive set of content standards using

multiple sources.
2. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and
combining.
3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.
4. Use data to develop final draft of standards, divided into
essential Standards and
Enrichment Standards.
 Phase 2. Develop Benchmarks
1. Review decisions about content emphases
2. Identify standards for continuing development
(Standards that will not be benchmarked).
3. Decide how benchmarks will be identified – by
taskforce or by teachers.
4. Develop initial dreft of benchmarks, evaluating with
criteria provided, and secure teacher review ; revise
benchmarks if needed.
 Phase 3. Develop final products.

1. Use standards and benchmarks to product

scope and sequence chart.

2. Decide on curriculum guide content.

3. Analyze benchmarks into learning objectives.

 D. Undestanding by Design Model (UBD)

The understanding by design model was

developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2002). It has
become a byword in the Philippine educational
system because it was used to design the basic
education curriculum in school year 2010-2011,
before the K-12 Education curriculum was
implemented.
 The model is also called as the Backward
Design for putting emphasis on designing
curriculum to engage students in exploring and
deepening their understanding of important
ideas and the design of assessments (Wiggins &
McTighe, 2002). Figure 5 shows the three
stages in backward design process.
 E. Systematics Design Model
Originally, Robert Diamond developed the systematic design
model in the early 1960s.Since then, it has undergone major
revisions but its structure is underchanged (Diamond, 1998).
Figure 6, has two basic phases: 1.) Project selection and design
and 2.) production, implementation, and evaluation. Like some
of the previous models, it follows a linear process of curriculum
development. Diamond (1998) in Pawilen explained that ideally,
some actions must precede others, and certain deciasions should
not be made until all relevant facts are known. It is imperative
that all data must be complete before proceeding to the next
step.
 The systematic design model is prescriptive and
rational. It presents a systematic and linear view of
curriculum development. The use of diagrams is an
excellent way of helping curriculum workers to
visualize the entire curriculum development process. As
shown in its first phase, some curriculum influences and
sources are are also acknowledged in the process of
curriculum development. These curriculum sources and
influences are used todetermine the objectives of the
curriculum (Pawilen, 2019)
 F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development

Murray Print published his model in his book

Curriculum Development and Design 1988. His model,
as shown in Figure 6 prescribes a sequential and logical
approach to curriculum development to provide a useful
and easy to understand process in developing curriculum.
 The first phase of Print’s Model recognizes the nature
of the curriculum workers involved in the development
of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this phase, it is
important to pose the following questions that may be
influence curriculum development.

1. Who are involved in this curriculum development, and

what, if anything do they represent?
2. What conception of curriculum do they bring with
them.
 1. Who are involved in this curriculum
development, and what, if anything do they
represent?

2. What conception of curriculum do they bring

with them.

3. What conception of curriculum do they bring

with them
The answer to these questions will bring useful
insights into the type of curriculum that will
developed.

The second phase in this model is the task of

developing the curriculum. The procedure is
cyclical, which begins with a situational analysis,
and continues with the aims. Goals and objectives,
content.
 The third phase includes the actual application
that incorporates three major activities. (1)
implementation of the curriculum, (2) monitoring
of, and feedback from the curriculum, and (3) the
provision of feedback data to the presage group.
 Print’s model is also prescriptive and rational. The model
starts withidentifying the aims, goals and objectives of the
curriculum. It also embraces the principles of cyclical and
dynamic models in its procedures.
Curriculum workers can examine their actions as they
go through the process of curriculum development. Print’s
curriculum workers involved in different curriculum
activities. It also recognizes the myriad of curriculum
conceptions and ideas that various curriculum workers bring
to the curriculum development process which may influence
them in making important curricular decisions.
 According to Pawilen (2019), the inclusion of
instructional evaluation in the development process
makes tis model unique. Evaluation provides
necessary data regarding the implementation of the
curriculum. The result of the evaluation is valuable
in examining whether the curriculum is applicable to
the student or whether the goals of the curriculum
have been achieved.
 Print’s model in Pawilen (2019) should establish a
stronger link between the curriculum presage and the
situational analysis. The model gives an impression.
The model gives an impression that curriculum
presage has no direct effect or relationship with
situational analysis. Curriculum presage is is part of
situational analysis since the various curriculum
workers are also part of the context or environment
of the curriculum.
G. Kerr’s Model

Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble those

in Wheeler’s and Tyler’s Model.
However, Kerr divided the domain into four areas:

• Objectives
• Knowledge
• Evaluation
• School Learning Experiences
In Kerr’s model, objectives are divided into three
groups: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
The model further indicates that knowledge
should be:
• Organized
• Integrated
• Sequenced, and
• Reinforced
Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

The cyclical models prescribe a cyclical or

continuous process of curriculum development.
Cyclical models usually start with situational
analysis that serves as the basis for all
succeeding process (Pawilen,
2019).
 A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model
for Curriculum Development

An Example of a cyclical model for curriculum

development was develop by Nicholls and Nicholls
(1978).
The model emphasizes the cyclical nature of
curriculum development. According to the
proponents of this model in Pawilen (2019),
curriculum development is a continuous process.
 In the figure it is shown that the model
prescribes five logical and interdependent stages
that are in the continuous curriculum development
process. The model starts with a situational
analysis in which curricular decisions are made,
followed by the selection of objectives and the
other succeeding phases (Pawilen, 2019).
 The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The
inclusion of situational analysis as part of the model is a
valuable principle in curriculum development. It enables the
curriculum workers to understand better the context in which
the curriculum is developed.
By starting with situational analysis, curriculum workers
will be able to collect data and the needed information from
various curriculum sources and influences that are
prerequisites in formulating curriculum goals and
objectives.
 According to Pawilen (2019), the model also
recognizes the influence and importance of
contributing disciplines such as philosophy,
Psychology and sociology in developing thwe
curriculum.
These disciplines are useful in selecting the
curriculum goals and objectives,contents, learning
experiences, and evaluation. The importance of these
three disciplines in developing curriculum is also
recognized in the model of Tyler (1949)
 The model has the potential to be used in any
educational setting, either school-based or
on the national level. The cyclical nature of the
model also enables curriculum workers in making
the necessary changes and adjustments in the total
curriculum. This attribute of the model is helpful for
teachers, administrators, and education boards to
address curricular issues and propose innovations
and changes whenever needed.
 The model of Nicholls and Nicholls (1978)
advocates a curriculum development activity that
involves continuous improvement.
The possible problem that may occur is that many
curriculum workers are used to develop
curricula following a linear model. For example, in the
Philippines curriculum development follows
a top down approach where many curricular decisions
are made in the national level. The goals
and contents of the curriculum are set by the state.
 In the context of higher education, there is
a tendency for teachers not to follow this model
because of the tedious job of conducting
situational analysis before developing any syllabus
or curriculum plan (Pawilen, 2019)
B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
In the book of wheeler, “Curriculum Process” (1967),
presented a cyclical process in which each element of
the curriculum is related and interdependent shown in
figure 9.
Although this model is also rational in nature, each
phase is a logical development of the preceding phase
is done. Wheeler also emphasized the importance of
starting from the development of aims,
goals and objectives.
C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course
Planning

The contextual Filters Model of course planning was

developed by stark, et al. in 1990 as part of their study
conducted at the University of Michigan National
Center for Research to improve Postsecondary
Teaching and Learning. This model appeared in the
book of Stark and
Lattuca (1997).
 Content influences encompass faculty members’
background and associated disciplinary and
educational beliefs.
Contextual influences refer to the influences
outside of the instructor’s immediate control that
cause adjustments in the course plans such as
student characteristics or instructional resources.
Form includes the processes that are followed in
designing courses.
(Stark & Lattuca, 1997)
Figure 10. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning
 The model is based on a research conducted by the
proponents on how the faculty members in several higher
education institutions in the United states plan their
curriculum (Stark & Lattuca, 1997).
Several Curriculum influences such as faculty
background and educational beliefs are recognized in the
model. The influence and the special role of faculty
members in curriculum planning and development are
recognized as a main factor in curriculum development in
higher education (Pawielen, 2019).
 According to Pawilen (2019), this model is
very teacher-centered. Given the influence of
academic freedom, faculty members may plan
the curriculum based on their own convenience.
The model can be improved by putting students
as part of the content influences.
 Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development
The dynamic models of curriculum development
describe how curriculum workers develop
curricula in various educational contexts. The
dynamic curriculum development models are
usually used in school-based settings (Pawilen,
2019)
 A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum
Development
Decker Walker developed a model for curriculum
development which was first published
in 1971.
Walker contended that curriculum developers do not
follow the prescriptive approach of the rationale-linear
sequence of curriculum elements when they develop
curricula (Walker,
1971; Marsh & Willis, 2007; Print, 1993).
 In his model, Walker was particularly
interested on how curriculum workers actually
do their task in curriculum development. Walker
was able to identify three phases, which he
termed platform, deliberation and design as
shown in figure 11.
 According to Pawilen (2019), walker’s model is a
dynamic and a descriptive model of curriculum
development. It reflects the realities of how
curriculum workers plan and develop a curriculum.
It recognizes the role and influence of curriculum
workers in any curriculum development.
 In addition, it avoids the obsession of starting with
objectives. This practice is also observed in the model of
Print (1993). Since the model is dynamic, the curriculum
workers may commence at any point in the curriculum
process depending on their needs. This allows more
flexibility among curriculum workers in developing
curriculum. Curriculum workers (developers) may review
their previous decisions and actions to correct some
mistakes. According to Walker (1971), this model can be
used for a school-based curriculum development.
 The model, being dynamic can be confusing to
other curriculum workers who are not aware of the
processes of curriculum development. If this
model is applied in the Philippines, where most
teachers are implementers of curriculum
developed by other educators, this model may not
have value to them.
 Another weakness of walker’s model is a strong tendency
of the curriculum development
to be stuck in phase 2 .
According to Print (1993), too much discussion may lead to
analysis_x0002_paralysis syndrome that could penalize or
prolong the process of curriculum development.
According to Pawilen (1993), probably, the model can be
elaborated more on the design processes involve in phase 3 to
help teachers and neophyte curriculum workers/developers do
their task.
 B. Skillbeck”s Curriculum Development
Model
In 1976, Skillbeck came up with a model for
developing a school-based curriculum in Australia.
His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum
development. When using this model, curriculum
workers/developers may start from any phase.
 However, each phase is interrelated and follows a
systematic sequence as shown in figure 12.
Skillbeck’s model includes a situational analysis that
involves gathering data from the school, society, and
the learners.
The results of the situational analysis provide
strong bases for making curricular decisions for all
the succeeding phases of curriculum develop
 C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to
Curriculum Development
Elliot W. Eisner (1979) was a famous curriculum
scholar, he published the book “The Educational
Imagination where he presented his idea on how
curriculum development should be done.
Einer (1979), believed that there is a need to develop
a new theory that recognizes the artistry of
teaching that is useful in helping teachers develop those
arts.
 In his book, Eisner outlined how this
artistic approach can be used also in curriculum development.

1. Goals and their Priorities

• The need to consider less, well-defined

objectives as well as explicit ones
• The need for deliberation in talking through
priorities.
2. Content of Curriculum
• Options to consider in selecting curriculum
• Caveats about the null curriculum.

3. Types of Learning Opportunities

• Emphasis on transforming goals and content into

learning events that will be of significance tom
students.
4. Organization of Learning Opportunities
• Emphasis on a non-linearapproach in order to
encourage diverse student outcomes

5. Organization of Content Areas

Emphasis on cross-curricula organization of
content.
6. Mode of presentation and Mode of Response
• Use of a number of modes of communication to
widen educational opportunities for students

7. Types of Evaluation Procedure

• Use of a Comprehensive Range of Procedures at
different stages of the process of curriculum
development.
 Analysis of Different Curriculum Models

According to Pawilen (2019) a summary of the

analysis of the different Curriculum development
models in relation to the two dimensions suggested by
Prince (1993) is shown in figure in the next slide. All
the curriculum development models are based on
curriculum researches in relation to the two dimensions
suggested by Print and are based on certain theories of
curriculum.
 Each model is unique depending on the curriculum
theory advocated by the proponents. It is the role of the
curriculum developers to select a model based on their
context (Print, 1993)
 The linear models (Standards-based Curriculum
Development Model, Understanding by Design,
Systematic Design Model, and Print’s Curriculum
Development Model) provide a direct and time-
efficient approach to curriculum development.
These model simplify the process of curriculum
development such that curriculum workers will find
it easy to follow.
 The linear models are highly prescriptive and
rational. They state precisely where to start in the
curriculum development process. Usually, they
start with a situational analysis or selecting
objectives.
 The Cyclical Model of Nicholls and Nicholls
(1978) and the contextual filters Model of Course
Planning model present an interrelated procedure
for developing curriculum. These models are
prescriptive by starting with situational analysis;
yet, they are also dynamic. These models are
applicable to school-based curriculum
development.
 The dynamic model of Eisner (1979), Walker
(1971), and Pawilen’s Model (2011) are less rigid in
application and they can be used in school-based
curriculum development. These
two models reflect the reality of how institutions and
teachers develop curricula. Eisner’s
(1979)model is prescriptive; yet, it is also descriptive,
while Walker’s (1971) model is highly
dynamic and descriptive.
 Each model of curriculum development is based on a
curriculum theory developed by various proponents.
The models presented are reflections of what various
authors and scholars believe about the nature of
curriculum and the process of curriculum development.

Some principles from these models are (Pawilen, 2019)

1. When developing a model for curriculum development,
there is always the need for a clear and logical process.

2. Curriculum sources and other variables that are influential

in developing a curriculum should be specified.

3. Models should reflect how educators plan and develop

curriculum in any levels

4. Models should be based on a curriculum theory.

5. Each process in a model should specify areas
where curriculum decisions are made.

6. Each model should reflect the major phases of

curriculum development (planning, design,
implementation and evaluation. It is also important
that each model should be applicable in various
contexts.
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