Experiments & Design of Experiments (Doe)

Experiments & Design of Experiments (DoE)
• Introduction
• Timelines in history of DoE
• Terminologies in DoE
• Principles of DoE
• Stages of DoE
• Scope of DoE
• Planning and implementation of DoE
• Importance of DoE
• Application of DoE techniques
Design of experiments (DoE)
• Engineering experiments need to be designed carefully as time and
resource/ budgets are limited
• Used in production and quality control activities
• All experiments are designed experiments, but some are poorly
designed and some are well-designed
• Performing experiments to measure the effects of one or more

variables on a response
• A systematic cost efficient way to develop understanding of a

product or process and use it to make improvements
What is DoE ?
• Controls the error and learn about the process or the underlying
theory with the resources at hand
• A simultaneous study of several process variables
• A methodology for systematically applying statistics to
experimentation
• Generates a structured information‐loaded data conducive to
extract and communicate information
• Develops a mathematical model that predicts how input variables
interact to create output variables or responses in a process or
system
• Used for a wide range of experiments for various purposes and
uses statistics all the time
Timelines in the History of DoE
1. The agricultural origins (1918 – 1940s)
– R. A. Fisher & his co-workers
– Profound impact on agricultural science
– Factorial designs, ANOVA
2. The first industrial era (1951 – late 1970s)
– Box & Wilson, response surfaces
– Applications in the chemical & process industries
3. The second industrial era (late 1970s – 1990)
– Quality improvement initiatives in many companies
– CQI and TQM were important ideas and became management goals
– Taguchi and robust parameter design, process robustness
4. The modern era (beginning around 1990)
– Economic competitiveness and globalization drives all sectors to be more
competitive
General Terminologies
• Statistics: the science of problem-solving in the presence of
variability
• Population: a statistical population consists of all possible
items or units with one or more common characteristics under
specified experimental or observational conditions
• Process: a repeatable series of actions that results in an
observable characteristic or measurement
• Variable: a property or characteristic on which information is
obtained in an experiment
• Observation: the collection of information in an experiment, or
actual values obtained on variables in an experiment
• Response Variable: any outcome or result of an experiment
• Factors: controllable experimental variables that can influence the
observed values of response variables
• Sample: a group of observations taken from a population or a process
• Simple Random Sample(SRS): in an experimental setting, a SRS of

size n is obtained when items are selected from a fixed population or a
process
(every group of items of size n has an equal chance of being selected as
the sample)
Representative samples for

inductive inferences on
populations
• Parameters : a numerical characteristic of a population or a

process
• Statistic: a numerical characteristic that is computed from a

sample of observations
• Distribution: a tabular, graphical, or theoretical description of

the values of a variable using some measure of how frequently
they occur in a population, a process, or a sample
• Sampling Distribution: a theoretical model that describes the
probability of obtaining the possible values of a sample statistic
• Mathematical Model: a model is termed mathematical if it is
derived from theoretical or mechanistic considerations that
represent exact, error-free assumed relationships among the
variables
DoE terminologies
The building blocks of a comparative experiment:
 Experimental units(EU’s)
 The entities that receive an independent application of one of the experiment’s
treatments
 Subjects/things we apply treatments
 Treatments or runs(levels)
 The set of conditions under study
 Treatments are applied to EU’s and responses are measured
 Responses or outputs ”Y”

 Measured characteristics that evaluate the effect of treatments on EU’s
Factors or inputs “X”

 Factors/inputs/ “X”–variables that affect the response
 Variables that affect the response
DoE terminologies
DoE Terminologies
Stages of DoE
For a single DOE, there are 4 distinct stages or phases
1. Before the experiment is run(Design)---prepare design
2. Running the experiment(Execution)---collection of data

3. Right after the experiment is run(Analysis)---statistical
analysis of data
4. Using the analysis to make improvement(Synthesis)---- drive
conclusions and formulate recommendation as a result of
experiment
Scope of DOE
DOE includes the entire scope of experimentation
1. Defining the output measure(s) that one desires to improve
2. The candidate process variables that one will change
3. Procedures for experimentation
4. Actual performance of the experiment
5. Analysis and interpretation of the results
Why we do experiment?
6. To change a process average in the desired direction
7. To reduce process variation
8. To make a process robust(i.e., make the response insensitive
to uncontrollable changes in the process variables)
9. To know which variables are important to control and which
are not
Planning and implementation of DoE
1. Define the process to be studied
2. Determine the response(s)
3. Determine the measurement precision and accuracy
4. Generate candidate factors
5. Determine the levels for the selected factors
6. Select the experimental design
7. Have a plan to control extraneous variables
8. Perform the experiment according to the design
9. Analyze and draw conclusions
10. Verify and document the new process
11. Propose the next study
Importance of DoE
Critical stages of statistical input in scientific investigations
Role of Statistics in Experimentation
Application of DoE techniques
1. Technology commercialization and product

realization activities
– New product design and formulation
– Manufacturing process development
– Process improvement
2. Process development activities

– Improved process yields
– Reduced variability and closer conformance to nominal or
target requirements
– Reduced development time
– Reduced overall costs
3. Engineering Design
• Evaluation and comparison of basic design configurations
• Evaluation of material alternatives
• Selection of design parameters to make robust products for

different field conditions
• Determination of key product design parameters that impact
product performance
• Formulation of new products
• Nearly applied in all fields of engineering and business

marketing
4.Non-manufacturing/non-product
development activities
– Marketing
– Market research
– Transactional and service operations
– General business operations
Strategy of Experimentation
• Observing a system or process while it is in operation

is an important part of the learning process, and is an
integral part of understanding and learning about how
systems and processes work
• The great New York Yankees catcher Yogi Berra said

that “. . . you can observe a lot just by watching.”
• However, to understand what happens to a process when you
change certain input factors, you have to do more than just watch
—you actually have to change the factors
• i.e to really understand cause-and-effect relationships in a

system you must deliberately change the input variables to the
system and observe the changes in the system output
• In other words, you need to conduct experiments on the system

• Observations on a system or process lead to theories or
hypotheses about what makes the system works
• Experiments are required to demonstrate that these theories are

correct
• An experiment is a test or series of runs in which purposeful

changes are made to the input variables of a process or system to
observe and identify the reasons for changes that may be
observed in the output response
Experimentation
• Plays an important role in technology commercialization and
product realization activities
• It consist of new product design and formulation, manufacturing

process development, and process improvement
• Aims to develop a process which is minimally affected by

external sources of variability (a robust process)
• There are also many applications of designed experiments in a

non-manufacturing or non-product-development setting, such as
marketing, service, and general business operations
Experiment-Example
A metallurgical engineer is interested in studying the effect of two
different hardening processes, oil quenching and saltwater
quenching, on an aluminum alloy
Objective of the experimenter (the engineer) is to determine which

quenching solution produces the maximum hardness for this
particular alloy
The engineer decides to subject a number of alloy specimens or test

coupons to each quenching medium and measure the hardness of the
specimens after quenching
The average hardness of the specimens treated in each quenching

solution will be used to determine which solution is best
Experiment-Example
In a simple experiment, a number of important questions come to
our mind:
1. Are these two solutions the only quenching media of
potential interest?
2. Are there any other factors that might affect hardness that
should be investigated or controlled in this experiment
(such as, the temperature of the quenching media)?
3. How many coupons of alloy should be tested in each
quenching solution?
4. How should the test coupons be assigned to the quenching
solutions, and in what order should the data be collected?
5. What method of data analysis should be used?
6. What difference in average observed hardness between the
two quenching media will be considered important?
– Best guess approach (trial and error)
• Can continue indefinitely
• Cannot guarantee a best solution
– One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) approach
• Inefficient (requires many test runs)----Golf Experiment
• Fails to consider any possible interaction between factors
– Factorial approach (invented in the 1920’s)

• Factors varied together
• Correct, modern, and most efficient approach
• Can determine how factors interact
• Used extensively in industrial R and D, and for process improvement
– Fractional Factorial Experiment (only subset of possible runs are used)

Golf Experiment
• Interaction between type of • A two-factor factorial

driver and type of beverage experiment involving type
for the golf experiment of driver and type of ball
General process/system model
The objectives of the experiment
• To determine which variables are most
influential on the response y
• To set the influential x’s so that y is almost

always near the desired nominal value
• To set the influential x’s so that variability

in y is small
• To set the influential x’s so that the effects

of the uncontrollable variables z1, z2, . . . ,
zq are minimized.
Experimental design
• To deal with several factors;
– A factorial experiment is required
– Factors are varied together, instead of one at a time
– The factorial experimental design concept is extremely
important
• Experimental design
– Important tool in the scientific and engineering world
– Helps to improve the product realization process
– Critical components are new manufacturing process design
and development, and process management
Applications of DoE
• Broad application in many disciplines
• Generate data from the process, and then use the
information or data to establish new inferences, which lead
to new experiments
• Application of DoE techniques early in process
development can result in:
– Improved process yields
– Reduced variability and closer conformance to nominal or target
requirements
– Reduced development time
– Reduced overall costs

Guidelines for Designing an Experiment
Why we run experiments?
Factor screening or characterization

• When a system or process is new, it is important to know the most
influential factors on the response(s) of interest
• Often there are lots of factors
Optimization
• After the system has been characterized the important factors have
been identified, the next objective is usually optimization
Confirmation
• the experimenter try to verify that the system operates or behaves
in a manner that is consistent with some theory or past experience
Why we run experiments?
Discovery
• Determine what happens when we explore new materials, or new
factors, or new ranges for factors
E.g. In the pharmaceutical industry
• To find new materials or combinations of materials that will be
effective in treating disease
Robustness
• Under what conditions do the response variables of interest
seriously degrade?
or
• What conditions would lead to unacceptable variability in the
response variables?
Empirical Models
Principles of DOE---Randomization
• The use of a known & understood probabilistic mechanism to

assign treatments to EU’s
• Selecting or assigning a treatment and a control to EU’s should
be based on some random process
• EU’s are randomly assigned to treatment groups
• Essential to create valid experiments
• Eliminate potential biases from the results and conclusions

• Allocation of the experimental material
• Sequence of performing individual runs of the experiment

are randomly determined
• Statistical methods require observations(errors) to be

independently distributed random variables
• Effects of extraneous factors can be averaged out

• Protects against the effect of uncontrolled and/or

unknown variables that are not part of the experiment
E.g. If all the experimental units subjected to one

treatment are different from those subjected to the other,
systematic bias will be introduced into the experimental
results
Bad Design Randomized Design

The Basic Principles of DOE---Replication
• Is an independent repeat run of each factor
combination
• To improve the precision of parameter estimates (reduce
the effect of uncontrolled variation)
• To estimate or control the uncertainty in our results
(quantify uncertainty)
• To achieve short confidence intervals by reducing the
error variance itself.
The Basic Principles of DOE---Replication
• To reduce the error variance by reducing the size or the
length of the confidence interval----which leads to blocking
• E.g. our estimates of the mean become less variable as the

sample size increases
• It helps to obtain an estimate of the experimental error

that determine the observed differences in the data are
statistically different or not
The Basic Principles of DOE--Blocking
• A design technique used to improve the precision in measuring
the effect of experimental factors
• A way to clean or take out the effect of known disturbances or
noise factors (different raw materials, different days of
experimentation, personnel, etc)
• When noise factor is know and can be controlled
• It is a set of relatively homogeneous experimental conditions
• Blocking is required when it is not possible to run all experiments
under homogeneous condition
• Used to reduce or eliminate the variability transmitted from
nuisance factors
The Basic Principles of DOE---Blocking
• Includes other factors in experiment which

contribute to undesirable variation
• Controls sources of variation to decrease error
variance
• Age and gender are often considered nuisance
factors which contribute to variability
• They are often important factors affecting the
response
• At the end of an experiment, unknown error
variance should be as small as possible
The Basic Principles of DOE---Blocking
• Experimental units are selected, organized or structured in
many ways
• Simplest case: one group of homogeneous experimental
units
• E.g. individual plots of land with the same soil quality
• An experiment can have multiple groups of experimental
units
• In a medical experiment, the experimental units could be
patients in a specified demographic or medical category
The Basic Principles of DOE--Blocking
Blocked design Blocked design

Why Blocking?
Chapter Simple Comparative Experiments
• Simple comparative experiments are preliminary statistical

concepts
o Hypothesis testing
o Estimation
• Two sample experiments
• E.g. Two formulations for making cement mortar
Tension Bond Strength Data for the Portland
Cement Formulation Experiment
Box plot
Dot diagrams, histograms, and box plots are

useful for summarizing the information in a
sample of data
Dot Diagram
Probability Distributions
Probability distribution function Probability Density function

Mean, Variance, and Expected Values
Simple Comparative Experiments
 Statistics provides the tools and framework for:
• Translating ideas into experiments
• Interpreting the data resulted from experiments
 F-test compares variance among treatment means vs. the variance of

individuals within the specific treatments
 High values of F-ratio indicates at least one of the treatment means differ
from others
Testing: The two sample t-test
• For the two sample t-test both samples are assumed to come from
Normal populations with (possibly different) means μi and
variances σ2
• When the variances are not equal we will generally try to

overcome this by transforming the data
• Using a metric where the variation is equal we can use complex

ANOVA models, which also assume equal variances
• There is a version of the two sample t-test which can handle
different variances
• We want to test the hypothesis that the means μi are equal.
Basic statistical concepts
Graphical methods
– Dot diagram
– Histogram
– Box-plot
– Stem-and-leaf plot,
– Normal probability plot
• Provide information like the location or central tendency and
spread or variability of the observations
What is the central tendency?
What is variability?
Random variables
p.d.f, c.d.f, discrete, continuous, random sample, population
mean (𝑜𝑟 𝐸(𝑌)) , population variance σ2, and so on
• Noise is usually called experimental error or simply error
• It is a statistical error, i.e. the variation is uncontrolled and
generally unavoidable
Sampling test
• Properties of sample mean and variance
Useful sampling distributions
• Normal distribution
• Chi-squared distribution
• t-distribution
Useful sampling distributions
• F-distribution
Chi-squared table
Mortar data
Sampling and Sampling Distributions
• Random Samples
• Sample Mean
• Sample Variance
Inferences about differences in mean
• Hypothesis testing
In the mortar example, we assume that
and are coming from two independent
normal population
Two sample t-test
Two sample t-test
Example of t-test
Testing hypothesis
Paired comparison designs
Diet medicine example
Hardness testing example
Advantages of paired comparison design
• Illustrates the blocking principle
• Special case of RBD

• Provides a noise reduction more than the two-sample
t-test
Checking assumptions in t-test
Inferences about variances of normal
distribution
Inferences about variances of normal distribution
Exercise-1
Experimental data
NPP from MINITAB
Exercise-2
Test on means with known variance
Test on means with unknown variance
Tests on variances on normal distributions
Exercise 3
Cont…
Single factor experiments--ANOVA
Plasma etching experiment
A single wafer plasma etching tool
Examples
Examples
Decomposition of total sum of squares
Statistical analysis
Statistical Analysis
Models for the data
the Means model
The error incorporates sources of variability such as;

• Measurement error
• Variability from uncontrolled factors
• Differences between the experimental units (such as test material,
etc.)
• The general background noise in the process
• Yij is a linear function of the model parameters,Yij~N (m+ti, s2)
Models for the data
• It is convenient to think of model errors as having
mean zero, E(Yij) = µi., and variance S2 assumed
constant for all treatments
• An alternative way to write a model for the data is
The effects model
• The above two models are called the one-way or single-factor

ANOVA model
• These models are linear statistical models

Models for the data
• The experimental design in one-way single factor ANOVA is
completely randomized design
• The errors are normally & independently distributed
• If the hypothesis testing is regarding the selected/explicitly

considered ‘a’ treatments only we call it
Fixed effects model (model parameters = m, ti,s2)
• If a treatments are random samples from large population of

treatments and the conclusions are made to all treatments in the
population we call it Random effects model or Components of
variance model(model parameters = m,ti,st2,s2)
• In this case testing the variability of ti and estimating the
variability is required
Analysis of fixed effects model
ANOVA for single factor- fixed effects model
Models and Parameters
• The objectives of the experiment
o To decide which model is the best to describe the data
o To make inferences about the parameters in the
models
• Model (two parts):
o Model for the means: describes the average or expected values
for the data
o Model for the errors: describes how the model for the data
vary around the treatment means
• Errors need to be normally distributed

• Suppose we have a treatments and ni units.
• Let yij be the jth observation or response in the ith
treatment group.
• Thus i runs between 1 & a, and j runs between 1 & ni,
in treatment group i.
Models for the means
• There are two basic models
• Separate group means model (the full model):
assumes that every treatment has its own mean
response μi.
yij ∼N(μi, σ2)
yij =μi + σij, where the σij’s are “errors” or
“deviations” that are independent, normally distributed with
mean=0 and variance=σ2
• Single mean model (the reduced model): assumes that
all the treatments have the same mean μ.
yij ∼ N(μ, σ2)
yij = μ + σij, where the σij’s are independent,
normally distributed errors with mean=0 and variance=σ2.
Types of Experimental Designs
Types of Experimental Designs
• Completely Randomized Block Design (RCBD)---

assigning treatments to units in each blocks randomly
• Complete Block Design(CBD)--every treatment is used
in every block
• Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
• Randomized Block Design (RBD)

• Latin Square Design (LSD)
Types of Designs-RCBD
o Subjects are divided into b blocks according to
demographic characteristics
o Subjects in each block are randomly assigned to
treatments so that all treatment levels appear in each
block
o For example, in the education study that involved several
classrooms, the classrooms might differ due to different
teaching methods
o Students are randomly assigned to one of the four types
of tests within each classroom
o There might be significant variability between the subjects
in each classroom, each of which contains 24 students
o Randomly assign 6 students to each of the three types of
tests and the standard. The classroom is now the 'block'
o The primary interest is in the main effect of the test
RCBD for hardness testing experiment
Randomization
• Design technique used to guard against nuisance factors
• The source of variability is known but uncontrollable
Blocking
• Important design technique in industrial experimentation
• Systematically eliminates the effect of nuisance factors of variability on
the statistical comparisons among treatments
• The source of variability is known and controllable
Blocking factors
– Units of test equipment or machinery
– Batches of raw material, people, and time
• The RCBD is a generalization of the paired t-test concept
• The RCBD is one of the most widely used experimental designs
• Noise reduction design technique
• Increases the signal-to-noise ratio in the data
• Improves the precision with which treatment means are compared
Statistical Analysis of the RCBD
• The statistical model for the RCBD can be written in
several ways.
• The traditional model is an effects model:
• where m is an overall mean, ti is the effect of

the ith treatment, bj is the effect of the jth
block, and eij is the usual NID (0, s2) random
error term
• The treatment and block effects are deviations from the
overall mean so that
ANOVA for RCBD
ANOVA for RCBD
RCBD-Example
Some Other Aspects of the RCBD
Additivity of the Randomized Block Model

• The linear statistical model for RCBD is
completely additive
Random treatments and blocks
• The variance of the observations is constant
• The covariance between any two observations in
different blocks is zero
• The covariance between two observations from the
same block is sb2
Random treatments and blocks
• In situations where both factors and their possible
interaction are needed, factorial designs must be used
• The interactions between treatments and blocks can
occur when the response is measured on the wrong
scale
• Thus, a relationship that is multiplicative in the
original units, say
Interaction effects
Estimation of model parameters
Estimation of model parameters
Analysis of Minitab results
Coefficient of determination (R squared)/coefficient of

multiple determination for multiple regression
• Explained variation/total variation
• Always between 0 and 100%

• The higher the R squared the better the model fits the data
Latin square designs(LSD)
• Used to eliminate two nuisance sources of variability
• It systematically allows blocking in two directions
• The rows and columns actually represent two restrictions on

randomization
• A Latin square for p factors, or a p*p Latin square
• It is a square containing p rows and p columns
• p2 cells contains one of the p letters that corresponds to the

treatments
• Each letter occurs once and only once in each row and column
Latin square designs
ANOVA for Latin Square Designs---without replications
Latin square designs--Example
Latin square designs—Example with coded data
Latin square designs---ANOVA
Exercises--LSD
• An industrial engineer is investigating the effect of four
assembly methods (A, B, C, D) on the assembly time for a
color television component.
• Four operators are selected for the study.
• Furthermore, the engineer knows that each assembly
method produces such fatigue that the time required for the
last assembly may be greater than the time required for the
first, regardless of the method.
• That is, a trend develops in the required assembly time.
• To account for this source of variability, the engineer uses
Exercises---LSD
Exercises---LSD
Latin square designs with missing value
Replication of Latin squares
Replication of Latin squares
• A Latin square may be replicated in several ways:
ANOVA for LSD with replications
ANOVA for Latin square designs---with replications
Graeco-Latin square design
There are Graeco-Latin square designs for any
size n except for n=1,2 & 6
Graeco-Latin square-Example
• Testing three different types of gasoline:
– Three drivers
– Three vehicles
– Three gasoline types(treatments)—Latin Letters
– The test need to be performed each day---Greek letters
• The test/experiment is too complicated to be performed in one day
hence need to be performed over three days
• In this case, using drivers and vehicles over three separate days
could result in systematic errors
• To eliminate these errors we construct a Graeco-Latin square
experimental design
• In this case, each type of gasoline (treatment) will be tested:
o just once with each driver
o once with each vehicle
o once each day
Graeco-Latin square design---ANOVA
• In this Graeco-Latin square design, the different types of
gasoline are represented by the Latin letters A, B & C and
the different days by α, β & γ
• After eliminating the effects of the lines or rows (vehicles),
the columns (drivers),the greek letters (days), ANOVA
helps to know whether there is a significant difference b/n
the types of gasoline or not.
Graeco-Latin square design--Example
Balanced incomplete block design(BIBD)
Balanced incomplete block design(BIBD)
BIBD---Example
BIBD--ANOVA
BIBD--ANOVA
Completely randomized design (CRD)
One-factor-at-a-time experiments (OFAT)
• a dominant, but potentially disastrous type of experimentation
• Commonly used by many engineers and scientists in both
industry and academia
• Tests conducted by systematically changing the levels of one
factor holding the levels of all other factors fixed
• The “optimal” level of the first factor is then selected
• Subsequently, each factor in turn is varied and its “optimal” level
selected while the other factors are held fixed
• It can not detect the unique effects of combinations of factors
(interaction)
One-factor-at-a-time experiments (OFAT)
• OFAT experiments are:
o Easier to implement
o More easily understood
o Better than trial and error
o Believed to provide the optimum combinations of the factor
levels
o Unfortunately, each of these beliefs can be false except
under very special circumstances
– It is only conducted under very special circumstances;
– Because it does not provide:
o adequate information on interactions
o efficient estimates of the effects
Factorial design--Basic definition and principles
• Many experiments involve the study of the effects of two
or more factors
• In this case, all of the possible combinations of factors’
level are investigated
• When factors are arranged in factorial design, they are
said to be crossed
• For example, if there are a levels of factor A and b levels of
factor B, each replicate contains all ab treatment
combinations
Factorial design--Basic definition and principles
• Effect of a factor:
o the change in response due to a change in the level of the factor
• Main effects: the primary factors of interest in the experiment
• Interaction effect: the effect that the difference in response

between the levels of one factor is not the same at all levels of
the other factors
• Average response: the average value at one factor’s level
• Average response increase: the average value change for a

factor from low level to high level
Effects of factors and their interactions
Since the effect of A depends on the level chosen for factor B, we see
that there is interaction between A and B
Two-level factorial design-all factors at two levels
Factorial design
• A tool that experiment many factors simultaneously
• Simplest factorial design is two factors each at two levels
• These designs are excellent in screening many factors to
identify the vital few
• They reveal interactions which is never be found using
OFAT method
OFAT vs factorial design
In Factorial designs;
– Experimental trials or runs are performed at all

possible combinations of factor levels
– This is not the case in OFAT experiments
For engineering and scientific investigations;
– Factorial & fractional factorial experiments are

among the most useful multi-factor experiments
OFAT vs factorial design—at 2 levels
Factorial OFAT
• 2 factors: 4 runs • 2 factors: 6 runs

– 3 effects – 2 effects
• 3 factors: 8 runs • 3 factors: 16 runs
– 7 effects – 3 effects
• 5 factors: 32 or 16 runs • 5 factors: 96 runs
– 31 or 15 effects – 5 effects
• 7 factors: 128 or 64 • 7 factors: 512 runs
runs – 7 effects
– 127 or 63 effects
Example: Factorial vs OFAT
Factorial OFAT
High High
Factor B Factor B
Low Low
Low High Low High

Factor A Factor A
E.g. Factor A: Reynold’s number, Factor B: k/D
Factor B: k/D
Factorial designs
• The ability to gain competitive advantage

requires extreme care in designing and
conducting experiments
• Special attention must be paid to joint
effects and estimates of variability that are
provided by factorial experiments
• Full and fractional experiments can be
Two factor factorial design
• One Observation per Cell: Occasionally, one

encounters a two factor experiment with
only a single replicate
• If there are two factors & only one
observation per cell, the effects model is:
Two factor factorial design
General factorial design
• In general, there will be abc…n total observations if
there are n replicates of the complete experiment
• There are a levels for factor A, b levels of factor B, c
levels of factor C, …, and so on
• We must have at least two replicate (n >= 2) to include
all the possible interactions in model
• If all the factors are fixed, we may easily formulate and
test hypotheses about the main effects and interaction
effects using ANOVA
• For example, the three factor analysis of variance
model:
General factorial design
• A soft drink bottler is interested in obtaining more uniform fill heights in
the bottles produced by his manufacturing process
• The filling machine theoretically fills each bottle to the correct target
height, but in practice, there is variation around this target, and the
bottler would like to understand the sources of this variability better and
eventually reduce it
1. The process engineer can control three variables during the filling
process:
o percent carbonation (A)

o operating pressure in the filler (B)
o bottles produced per minute or the line speed (C)
Factorial designs
• In a factorial experiment, all

possible combinations of
factor levels are tested
• The golf experiment:
– Type of driver (over or
regular)
– Type of ball (balata or 3-
piece)
– Walking vs. riding a cart
– Type of beverage (Beer
vs water)
– Time of round (am or pm)
Fig. A two-Factor factorial
– Weather experiment with type of
– Type of golf spike, etc driver & type of ball
Factorial designs
Fig. Scores from the golf experiment in the previous figure and
calculation of the factor effects
Factorial designs with several factors
Fig. A three-factor factorial experiment; type of driver, type of

ball & type of beverage
Fig. A four-factor factorial experiment; type of driver, type of ball, type of beverage & mode of
travel
Generalization to two Factor FD
Testing Hypothesis
Example 2^2
Example 2^2
Example 2^2
Sum of Squares
Blocking a Replicated 2^k Factorial Design
2 Factor FD Examples
Example
Interaction--Example
Interaction--Example
General Factorial Design
General Factorial Design without interaction
effect
Model with significant interaction effect
Relative efficiency of FD over OFAT
Factorial Experiment--Example
Factorial Experiment--Example
FD with and with out Blocking
Example--- ull Factorial Designs
Example---ull Factorial Designs
Example--- full factorial
Example--- full factorial designs
Example---full factorial designs
Example---full factorial
Main and interaction effects
Chopping terms in the model
Analyzing in Minitab
Using the model
FFEs
• Fractional factorials manly used in screening experiments
• Screening experiments are used when many factors are considered and the
objective is to identify those factors with large effects
• Usually performed in the early stages of a project when many of the factors
initially considered likely have little or no effect on the response
• The important factors are then investigated more thoroughly in subsequent
Experiments
The successful use of fractional factorial designs(FFDs) is based on three key
ideas:
– The sparsity of effects principle: When there are several variables, the
system or process is likely to be driven primarily by some of the main
effects and low-order interactions
– The projection property: FFDs can be projected into stronger (larger)
designs in the subset of significant factors
– Sequential experimentation: it is possible to combine the runs of two (or
more) fractional factorials to construct sequentially a larger design to
estimate the factor effects and interactions of interest
Sound Strategy of Experimentation
Three stages
• Screening the vital few factors (20%) from the trivial
many(80%)
• Characterizing main effects and interactions
• Optimizing (typically via response surface methods)
• Finally statistical validation around optimal settings by

repeatedly running at those optimal points.
Example of FFDs (Weedwacker Experiment)
Factor Name Low level(-) High level(+)
A Prime pumps 3 5
B Pulls at full choke 3 5
C Gas during full choke pulls 0 100%
D Final choke setting 0 50%
E Gas for start 0 100%
Std A B C D E Pulls
1 - - - - + 1
2 + - - - - 4 Design layout
3 - + - - - 4 Half fraction
4 + + - - + 2
5 - - + - - 8
6 + - + - + 2
7 - + + - + 3
8 + + + - - 5
9 - - - + - 3
10 + - - + + 1
11 - + - + + 3
12 + + - + - 4
13 - - + + + 3
14 + - + + - 4
15 - + + + - 6
16 + + + + + 5
Fractional factorial designs
Fractional factorial designs
Fractional Factorial Design
Sparse Designs
• There will be a large number of factors, k
• The total number of observations will be N=2k−p,
• The total number of observations can be relatively small as k gets
large
• Fractional Factorial designs help to screen a large number of
factors but without having a very large experiment
• While screening a large number of factors, we assumption that
only a few are very important---sparsity of effects
• Efficient screening helps to identify only two or three factors that
will be the most important ones from large number of factors
• Hopefully, we can detect those factors even with a relatively small
experiment
trt A B C D = ABC
(1) - - - -
a + - - +
b - + - +
ab + + - -
c - - + +
ac + - + -
bc - + + -
abc + + + +
Levels of D is defined by using the relationship where D = ABC
Therefore, in the first row where all the treatments are minus, D =
-1*-1*-1 = -1.
Resolution of designs
• 2^3-1design is a Resolution III design
• 2^4−1design is a Resolution IV design
• The resolution of the design is based on the number of the letters
in the generator
• If the generator is a four letter word, the design is Resolution IV
• Number of letters in the generator determines the confounding or
aliasing properties in the resulting design
• If I=ABCD is the generator, the alias structure is found by
multiplying A×I=A×ABCD=A2BCD
• A is aliased with BCD
• A=BCD
• B=ACD
• C=ABD
• D=ABC
• Two-way interactions are aliased with other two-way interactions:
• AB=CD
• AC=BD
• AD=BC
• The main effects are aliased with the 3-way interactions
• This is a four letter effect that we are using as the generator

• The 2-way interactions are aliased with each other
• From this type of design, difficult to know which of the 2-way
interactions are important
• Resolution IV designs are preferred over Resolution III designs
• Resolution III designs do not have as good properties because

main effects are aliased with two-way interactions
• The higher order interactions are assumed to be not as important
Resolution
• The preceding 2^(3-1) design is called a resolution III design
• In such a design, main effects are aliased with two-factor
interactions
• A design is of resolution R if no p-factor effect is aliased with
another effect containing less than R-p factors
• The design resolution; thus, the one-half fraction of the 2^3 design
with the defining relation I ABC (or I =ABC) is a design
Resolution
Resolution of designs---Resolution-V
• I = ABCDE or E=ABCD
• The main effects are 'clear' of 2-way and 3-way interactions
• The main effects are only confounded with 4-way interactions or

higher, so this gives us really good information, and the 2-way
interactions are 'clear' of each other but are aliased with 3-way
interactions
• They are favorite designs as the main effects and two-way

interactions can be estimated
• Three-way interactions and higher are not important

Resolution
Resolution
How do we analyze fractional factorials??
Example—P&C insurance
The One-Half Fraction of the 2^k Design
½ design of 2^3 or 2^3-1
• Notice that the 2^(3-1) design is formed by selecting only those

treatment combinations that have a plus in the ABC column
• I=ABC is called the generator of this particular fraction
• Furthermore, the identity column I=ABC the defining relation
for the design
Confounding or Aliasing
• The ability to estimate some effects and/or interactions is lost
• If we replace X1*X2 by X3, an estimate of the interaction effect
X1*X2 is lost which is separate from an estimate of the main
effect for X3
• The main effect estimate for factor X3 have been confounded
with the estimate of the interaction effect for X1 and X2

Confounding or Aliasing
• The whole issue of confounding is fundamental to the

construction of fractional factorial designs
• Occurs in fractional factorial designs because the design does
not include all of the combinations of factor levels
• If factor A is confounded with the 3-way interaction BCD,
then the estimated effect for A is the sum of the effect of A and
the effect of BCD
Construction of a 23-1 1/2fraction design by
starting with a 22 full factorial design
X1X2 Run
Run X1 X2 Run X1 X2 X1 X2 X3
1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 +1 1 -1 -1 +1
2 +1 -1 2 +1 -1 -1 2 +1 -1 -1
3 -1 +1 3 -1 +1 -1 3 -1 +1 -1
4 +1 +1 4 +1 +1 +1 4 +1 +1 +1
If we had set X3 = -X1*X2 as the rule for generating

the third column of our 23-1 design,
Run X1 X2 X3
1 -1 -1 -1
2 +1 -1 +1
3 -1 +1 +1
4 +1 +1 -1
A Notation and Method for Generating Confounding
or Aliasing
• A short way of writing 'X3 = X1*X2' ( '3 = 12') or X3 = -X1*X2 (3 = -
12)
• Any column multiplied by itself gives the identity column of all
1's.
• (3=12)* 3 ---33=123, or I=123 since 33=I (or a column of all
1's)
• 2I=2123, or 2=2123, or 2=1223, or 2=13; since 2I=2, 22=I, and
1I3=13 Run
X1 X2 X3
• 1=23 because I=123
1 -1 -1 +1
2 +1 -1 -1
3 -1 +1 -1
4 +1 +1 +1
A Notation and Method for Generating Confounding or Aliasing
• Main effect estimates from fractional factorial not as good as full
factorial
• I=123 is a design generator or a generating relation for 23-1design
(the dark-shaded corners)
• I=-123 is a design generator or a generating relation for 23-1design
(the light-shaded corners)
• I=123 the defining relation for the 23-1 design that can generate (by
"multiplication") the complete confounding pattern for the design
• From I=123, we can generate the set of {1=23, 2=13, 3=12,
I=123}, which is the complete set of aliases or all columns for 23-
1
fractional factorial design
A Notation and Method for Generating Confounding or Aliasing
• The confounding pattern described by 1=23, 2=13, and 3=12 tells
the main effects of the 2^3-1 design are confounded with two-factor
interactions
(limitations of 2^3-1 Fractional factorial design)
• Other fractional designs have different confounding patterns;

• E.g. in 26 design (26-2 quarter fraction design) main effects are
confounded with three-factor interactions (e.g., 5=123) and so on
• In other cases 15=23,.. some two-factor interactions of a 26-2 are

confounded with other two-factor interactions
Confounding effects
• All Fractional Factorial DOE studies have some level of
confounding.
• By reducing the experimental runs to a fraction of Full Factorial
DOE, the ability to analyse some interactions effects is reduced
==confounding
• The design of the study must determine whether the confounding
level is acceptable
• Typically, high levels of confounding can be tolerated in the
screening phase, but not in the refining or optimizing phase
Confounding (Aliasing)
• Confounding occurs when the configuration of high and low factor
setting within a test matrix for a control factor is identical to the
configurations for an interaction effect
• This will occur for at least some interactions in every Fractional
Factorial DOE
• Depending upon the number of factors and the fraction used, the
confounding may be at 2-factor interaction effects, 3-factor
interactions effects or even higher numbers of factor interaction
effects
• The level at which confounding starts is referred to as a resolution
Confounding (Aliasing)
• The higher the resolution number, the higher the number of factor
involved in an interaction before confounding starts
• E.g. Resolution of III, all two factor interactions are confounded
• In Resolution IV, only some two factor interactions are
confounded
• In Resolution V, no any confounding for two factor interactions
and only some of the three factor interactions are confounded
Aliasing in 2^k−1 Experiments
• Suppose, instead of the full factorial, a half fraction or 2^3−1 is used by
only running the four rows where ABC = I
• E.g. A2 = A · A = I and (ABC)2

=
A2B2C2 = I · I · I = I
• Multiplying the defining relation

by A gives A · I = A · ABC,
which simplifies to A = BC.
• Inspection of these rows reveals the following equalities:

• I = ABC, A = BC, B =AC, C = AB.
• I = ABC is denoted the defining relation and the pairs are known as aliases
• The alias pairs are determined by multiplying the defining relation by each
effect
• Each column consists of half −1s and half +1s, so if a column is multiplied
by itself we get a column full of 1s, or I
Types of DOE
• Determining which type of DOE to use depends largely on:
-Experimental goal;
-Cost and resource constraints (or any practical limitations)
• Generally two categories of DOE
1. Classical designs: mostly used to introduce DOE concepts
• Examples of classical/textbook designs:
– Full factorial designs
– Fractional factorial designs (Screening designs)
– Response surface designs
– Mixture designs
– Taguchi array designs
– Split plot designs
2. Modern designs: used by industry practitioners in carrying out experiments
• Examples of custom/modern/computer-generated designs:
– Definitive screening design
– Custom designs
Type of Designs
• Trials are run at all possible combinations of factor settings
• The sample size is the product of the numbers of levels of the
factors
• For example, a factorial experiment with a two-level factor, a

three-level factor and a four-level factor has 2 x 3 x 4 = 24 runs
• Are often too expensive to run, since the sample size grows
exponentially with the number of factors
• Typically used when the number of factors and levels are small
• When all possible interaction information is required
• Hence the most commonly used factorial designs are 2k full
factorials
Type of Designs
• Screening designs are among the most popular designs for
industrial experimentation
• Typically used in initial stages of experimentation to narrow down
the long list of potentially important factors and interactions to
only a few important effects
• Usually requires fewer experimental runs than other designs
• The experiments are small and efficient, involving many factors
• Some classical screening designs include fractional factorial
designs, Plackett-Burman, Cotter and mixed-level designs
• Used for exploratory purposes (for example, to identify a handful

of important effects)
Type of Designs
• Response surface experiments are typically used in the latter
stages of experimentations- after important factors are identified
• It usually involves a small number (generally two to eight) of
continuous factors that have been identified as active
• Used to model the curvature in the relationship between the factors
and the response
• Helps to find settings of our factors to minimize or maximize a
response or to hit a specific target
• In order to estimate the curvature, the design requires at least three
levels for the factors
• response surface designs can get extremely large unless the
number of factors is limited
• Goal: to optimize processes by developing a predictive model
of the relationship between the factors and the response
Response Surface Methodology(RSM)
Experimental design
• plays an important role in several areas of science and industry
Experimentation
• Application of treatments applied to experimental units
• Part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or
more responses
• It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the
system well
• To obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan & design
experiments and analyze the results
RSM
• A collection of mathematical and statistical techniques
useful for the modelling and analysis of problems
• The response of interest is influenced by several variables
• The objective is to optimize the response variable Eg;

suppose that a chemical engineer wishes to find the levels
of temperature (x1) and pressure (x2) that maximize the
yield (y) of a process
• The process yield is a function of the levels of

temperature and pressure
RSM
E in represents the noise or error
observed in the response y
The expected response
This surface is called response

surface
y=f(x1,x2)+E
E refers to noise or error observed in the
response y
E(y)=f(x1,x2) is called a response surface
Contour plot of the RSM
• In most RSM problems, the form of the relationship between the
response and the independent variables is unknown
• The first step in RSM is to find a suitable approximation for the
true functional relationship between y and the set of independent
variables.
• Usually, a low-order polynomial in some region of the
independent variables is employed
• If the response is well modelled by a linear function of the
independent variables, then the approximating function is the
first-order model
• If there is curvature in the system, then a polynomial of higher
degree must be used, such as the second-order model
• Almost all RSM problems use one or both of these

models
• It is unlikely that a polynomial model will be a
reasonable approximation of the true functional
relationship over the entire space of the independent
variables
• But for a relatively small region they usually work quite
well
3D RS
• The method of least squares is used to estimate the parameters in
approximating polynomials
• The response surface analysis is done based on the fitted surface
• If the fitted surface is an adequate approximation of the true
response function, then analysis of the fitted surface will be
approximately equivalent to analysis of the actual system
• The model parameters can be estimated most effectively if proper
experimental designs are used to collect the data
• Designs for fitting response surfaces are called response surface
designs.
Sequential nature of RSM
Sequential nature of RSM
• RSM is a sequential procedure
• When we are at a point on the response surface that is remote

from the optimum, there is little curvature in the system and the
first-order model will be appropriate
• The objective is to lead the experimenter rapidly and efficiently

along a path of improvement toward the general vicinity of the
optimum
• Once the region of the optimum has been found, a more elaborate
model, such as the second-order model, may be employed, and
an analysis may be performed to locate the optimum
Sequential procedure of RSM
• We begin with a first order model when the response

surface is far from the optimum
• Then the experimenter should move efficiently and rapidly
along the path of improvement
• Climbing to a hill----if the true optimum is at the top
(Maximum response)
• Descending in to the valley----if the true optimum is at the
bottom (Minimum response)
RSM
• One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization
• It allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their

interactions on one or more response variables
• E.g. Study on extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and
determine optimum conditions for this extraction process
• It is a widely used mathematical and statistical method for modelling

and analyzing a process in which the response of interest is affected by
various variables
• The objective of this method is to optimize the response
• Useful for developing, improving, and optimizing the response
variable
RSM
• The response surface analysis is performed using the fitted surface
• If the fitted surface is an adequate approximation of the true

response function, then analysis of the fitted surface will be
approximately equivalent to analysis of the actual system
• The model parameters can be estimated most effectively if proper
experimental designs are used to collect the data
• Designs for fitting response surfaces are called response surface
designs
RSM process flow
Other designs related to RSM
• Central composite design----Box–wilson design
• Central composite rotatable design
• Box-Behnken Designs
Taguchi DOE
• Taguchi DOE is a special case Fractional Factorial DOE that is
used for optimizing process performance.
• It separates the control factors into two categories and by
simultaneously testing each category can minimize the number of
test runs.
• It is a design for process optimization, not product design or
technology characterization.
• Further it must be used with an existing process because it relies
on expert process knowledge to separate the control factors from
the noise factors
• Therefore, the process must exist and someone on the design team
must be knowledgeable about the process
Taguchi DOE
• It requires expert process knowledge and also often requires expert Taguchi DOE
knowledge
• It is a hybrid DOE
• It separates the list of traditional DOE control factors into two categories:
–Taguchi control factor
–Taguchi noise factor
Taguchi control factors:
• Factors that the process operator of the process being studied can control as part of
their normal duties
• Can vary based upon the type of equipment used and the process management
systems
• Expert knowledge about the process is needed so that the correct set of factors that
the operator controls – not just monitors – are identified
Noise factors:
• This does not mean that they are background factors with minor variations
• They could be the most significant factors for the process
• Since the operator cannot control them, they are treated as noise for the Taguchi
DOE
Taguchi DOE
• Both types of factors are analyzed simultaneously in the Taguchi
DOE
• The control factors are analyzed in a test matrix known as an inner
array
• The noise factors are analyzed in a test matrix known as an outer
array
• The inner array is normally a fractional factorial array and many
times they are multi-level factors
• The outer array is normally a full factorial array and normally
these are two-level factors
• These arrays are quite complex and there are many books and
manuals full of the arrays and their derivation
• Fortunately, most of the arrays are already found in statistical
software, such as Minitab, so once factor selection has been made,
the software will create the test matrix
Type of Designs
• Taguchi array designs are used to identify signal factors (or
control factors), which minimizes the effect of noise factors that
are typically difficult or expensive to control
• It is carried out based on Taguchi’s inner and outer array
approach
• Inner array: control factors to find optimum settings
• Outer array: noise factors looking at how response behaves in
wide range noise conditions
• Combined arrays (alternative method) generally more cost-
effective and informative than Taguchi arrays
Goal: To ensure consistency in output, by finding control factor

settings that generate acceptable responses despite natural
environmental and process variability
Taguchi Designs
• Helps to choose a product or process that functions more consistently in the
operating environment
• Not all factors that cause variability can be controlled
• These uncontrollable factors are called noise factors
• Identify controllable factors (control factors) that minimize the effect of the noise
factors
• During experimentation, manipulate noise factors to force variability to occur
and then determine optimal control factor settings that make the process or
product robust, or resistant to variation from the noise factors
• A process designed with this goal will produce more consistent output.
• A product designed with this goal will deliver more consistent performance
regardless of the environment in which it is used
Taguchi Design---example
• The Ina Tile Company of Japan in the 1950s
• manufacturing too many tiles outside specified dimensions
• A quality team discovered that the temperature in the kiln used
to bake the tiles varied, causing non-uniform tile dimension
• They could not eliminate the temperature variation because
building a new kiln was too costly
• Temperature was a noise factor
• Using Taguchi designed experiments, the team found that by

increasing the clay's lime content, a control factor, the tiles
became more resistant, or robust, to the temperature variation in
the kiln, letting them manufacture more uniform tiles
Factors in Taguchi Designs
• Control factors are process or design parameters that you can control
• Examples:
– Equipment settings
– Material used to manufacture the product, or product design features
• Noise factors are process or design parameters that are difficult or expensive
to control during manufacturing.
• Examples:
– Ambient temperature
– Humidity
• Consider a cake mixture manufacturer who wants to optimize cake flavor under
various conditions
• The manufacturer wants to determine:
– Control factors (which are in the manufacturer's control--cake mixture ingredients)
that reduce the effect of noise factors on cake flavor
– Noise factors (which are out of the manufacturer's control--air temperature and
humidity) while the consumer is making the cake
Features of Taguchi DOE
Strength
• It requires very few runs to get excellent insight into process
control
weakness
• It requires expert process knowledge to select the correct factors
• Analysis for the process at one location may be totally inadequate
for another location if they have different equipment or
management approach
• It uses its own unique terminology with different meaning as with
other DOE methodologies
• There are three terms in particular that are unique in their usage
within Taguchi DOE
• Control factors are the factors controlled by the operator
Features of Taguchi DOE
• There may be other factors that control the process, but if the
operator does not have access to them, they are not Taguchi
Control Factors
• Noise factors are all factors being analyzed that are not control
factors
• Controlled by other factors that are part of the system, and factors
in the environment
• They may have a significant effect, but they are “noise” from the
operator stand point
• Taguchi labels a process optimization as robust if the operator is
able to control it
• The process may actually be very fragile, but if it is fully
controlled by the operator, Taguchi calls it robust
Application of Taguchi DOE
• Only use this approach with process improvement projects
• A process expert is required as an advisor when setting up a
Taguchi DOE; otherwise picking the control and noise factors is
difficult
• Be very careful with the terminology – Taguchi terms do not carry
the normal meaning of the terms
• Taguchi arrays do not use the plus 1 and minus 1 settings for high
and low; they use one and two
• However, the Taguchi arrays are still balanced and orthogonal
• The use of the different numbers should not matter once values
for high, low and midpoints are recorded
Robust parameter design
• One of the classical approaches used to achieve robustness is to:
– Redesign the product using stronger components or
components with tighter tolerances
– Use different materials
– However, this may lead to problems with overdesign
– Overdesign leads to more expensive product, more difficult to
manufacture, or suffers a weight and subsequent performance
penalty
– Sometimes different design methods or incorporation of new
technology into the design can be exploited
Robust Design Problem
• Robust design problem mainly focus on one or more of the
following:
– Designing systems that are insensitive to environmental
factors that can affect performance once the system is
deployed in the field
(e.g. development of an exterior paint that should exhibit long
life when exposed to a variety of weather conditions)
– Designing products so that they are insensitive to
variability transmitted by the components of the system
(e.g. designing an electronic amplifier so that the output voltage
is as close as possible to the desired target regardless of the
variability in the electrical parameters of the transistors, resistors,
and power supplies that are the components of the system)
– Designing processes so that the manufactured product will
be as close as possible to the desired target specifications,
even though some process variables (such as temperature) or
raw material properties are impossible to control precisely
– Determining the operating conditions for a process so that

the critical process characteristics are as close as possible to
the desired target values and the variability around this target
is minimized
(e.g. In semiconductor manufacturing the oxide thickness on a
wafer is expected to be as close as possible to the target mean
thickness, and the variability in thickness across the wafer (a
measure of uniformity) need to be as small as possible)
• An important aspect of Taguchi’s approach was his notion that
certain types of variables cause variability in the important
system response variables
• They are known as noise variables or uncontrollable variables
• Noise variables may often be controlled at the research or

development level, but they cannot be controlled at the
production or product use level
• RPD problem identify the controllable variables and the noise

variables that affect process or product performance
• Then finding the settings for the controllable variables that

minimize the variability transmitted from the noise variables
Crossed Array Design
• The original Taguchi methodology for the RPD problem
revolved around the use of a statistical design for the
controllable variables and another statistical design for the noise
variables
• Then these two designs were “crossed”;
• Crossed array design: every treatment combination in the
design for the controllable variables run in combination with
every treatment combination in the noise variable design
• Crossed array design provides information about interactions
between controllable factors and noise factors
• Interactions are crucial to the solution of an RPD problem
• Unless there is at least one controllable factor—noise factor
interaction, there is no robust design problem
Example of Crossed array design
• In the leaf spring experiment five factors were studied to
determine their effect on the free height of a leaf spring used
in an automotive application
• There were five factors in the experiment;
– A =furnace temperature
– B =heating time
– C =transfer time
– D =hold down time
– E =quench oil temperature
• Noise Variable: quench oil temperature was the noise variable
• The design for the controllable factors is a 2^(4-1) fractional
factorial design with generator D =ABC
• This is called the inner array design
• The design for the single noise factor is a 2^1 design, and it is
called the outer array design
• Notice how each run in the outer array is performed for all eight
treatment combinations in the inner array, producing the crossed
array structure
• In the leaf spring experiment, each of the 16 distinct design
points was replicated three times, resulting in 48 observations on
free height
The role of the control Vs noise interaction in RD
• Examination of the crossed array design in Table 12.2 reveals
a major problem with the Taguchi design strategy; namely, the
crossed array approach can lead to a very large experiment
• In our example, there are only seven factors, yet the design has
72 runs. Furthermore, the inner array design is a 3^(4-2)
resolution III design
• In spite of the large number of runs, we cannot obtain any
information about interactions among the controllable
variables
• Indeed, even information about the main effects is potentially
tainted because the main effects are heavily aliased with the
two-factor interactions
Analysis of the Crossed Array Design
• In Taguchi method, data are summarized from a crossed array
experiment with two statistics:
– the average of each observation in the inner array across all runs in the outer
array
– a summary statistic that attempted to combine information about the mean and
variance, called the signal-to-noise ratio.
• Signal-to-noise ratios are supposedly defined so that a maximum value
of the ratio minimizes variability transmitted from the noise variables
• Then an analysis is performed to determine which settings of the

controllable factors result in:
– the mean as close as possible to the desired target
– a maximum value of the signal-to-noise ratio
• Due to confounding of location and dispersion effects, signal-to-noise
ratios create problem in finding a solution to the RPD problem that
minimizes the transmitted variability
Combined Array Designs and the Response
Model Approach
• This model one can see:

– the main effects of both controllable factors and their interaction
– the main effect of the noise variable
– interactions between the both controllable and noise variables
• This type of model, incorporating both controllable and noise variables, is
often called a response model
• Unless at least one of the regression coefficients delta 11 and delta 21 is
nonzero, there will be no robust design problem
• Response model approach combines both the controllable factors and the
noise factors can be placed in a single experimental design
• The inner and outer array structure of the Taguchi approach can be avoided
• The design containing both controllable and noise factors together is a
combined array design
Model Approach
Model Approach
• Mean response model
• Variance model
• General response model

Type of Designs
• Mixture designs are used when factors are interdependent, and
when each component in a mixture is dependent upon the settings
of other component settings
• Eg.,in stainless steel made up of Fe, Cu, Cr and Ni, the relative
proportions of these components contribute to the properties of
resulting steel
• A factor's value is its proportion of the mixture, 0-1
• Mixture experiments have three or more factors with the sum of the
factor proportions equal to one (100%)
• The experimental space is typically triangular and forms a simplex
• Examples of mixture designs: simplex centroid, simplex lattice,
ABCD design and extreme vertices
Goal: optimize recipe for a mixture of several ingredients

Nested&Split-PlotDesigns
The Two-Stage Nested Design
• In certain multifactor experiments, the levels of one factor (e.g.,
factor B) are similar but not identical for different levels of
another factor (e.g., A)
• Such an arrangement is called a nested, or hierarchical, design,
with the levels of factor B nested under the levels of factor A
• E.g. a company that purchases its raw material from three
different suppliers
• The company wishes to determine whether the purity of the raw
material is the same from each supplier
• There are four batches of raw material available from each
supplier, and three determinations of purity are to be taken from
each batch
• This is a two-stage nested design, with batches nested under

suppliers
• Why this is not a factorial experiment?
• If this were a factorial, then batch 1 would always refer to the
same batch, batch 2 would always refer to the same batch, and so
on
• This is clearly not the case because the batches from each supplier
are unique for that particular supplier
Batch 1 from supplier 1 has no connection with batch 1 from any other supplier, batch 2
from supplier 1 has no connection with batch 2 from any other supplier, and so forth
To emphasize the fact that the batches from each supplier are different batches, we may
renumber the batches as 1, 2, 3, and 4 from supplier 1; 5, 6, 7, and 8 from supplier 2; and
9, 10, 11, and 12 from supplier 3
• The linear statistical model for the two-stage nested design is:
• This is a balanced nested design; because there are an equal

number of levels of B within each level of A and an equal
number of replicates
• Not every level of factor B appears with every level of factor A,

there can be no interaction between A and B
• The appropriate statistics for testing the effects of factors A and B depend on
whether A and B are fixed or random
• If factors A and B are fixed, we assume that and
• That is, the A treatment effects sum to zero, and the B treatment effects sum to
zero within each level of A
• if A and B are random, we assume that
• Mixed models with A fixed and B random are also widely encountered
Example---a two-stage nested design
• Consider a company that buys raw material in batches from
three different suppliers
• The purity of this raw material varies considerably, which
causes problems in manufacturing the finished product
• We wish to determine whether the variability in purity is
attributable to differences between the suppliers
• Four batches of raw material are selected at random from each
supplier, and three determinations of purity are made on each
batch
Example---a two-stage nested design
Practical implications of SP designs
• The practical implications of this experiment and the analysis are
very important
• The objective of the experimenter is to find the source of the
variability in raw material purity
• If it results from differences among suppliers, we may be able to
solve the problem by selecting the “best” supplier
• However, that solution is not applicable here because the major
source of variability is the batch-to-batch purity variation within
suppliers
• Therefore, we must attack the problem by working with the
suppliers to reduce their batch-to-batch variability
• This may involve modifications to the suppliers’ production
processes or their internal quality assurance system
A three-stage staggered nested design
Sources of variation in the 3-stage nested design example
ANOVA for 3-stage nested design
Designs with Both Nested and Factorial Factors
Because there are only three fixtures and two layouts, but
the operators are chosen at random, this is a mixed model
Expected Mean Square
Type of Designs
• Split plot designs are typically used when an experiment involves hard-to-change
variables
• E.g. temperature of an industrial oven or the location of a cornfield
• Traditional randomized experiments require factors to be tested for each run, which
is impractical in this case
• Split plot design is a blocked experiment, having the blocks serve as experimental
units for a subset of factors
• In split plot experiments, a treatment is applied to more than one experimental unit
because a factor(s) is associated with batch processing, or it is hard or costly to
change
• As a result, split plot experiments are more practical to be carried out in the industrial
world
• Examples split-split plot design (nested relationship) & strip plot design (cross
relationship)
Goal: Enable experiments to be carried out even with presence of hard-to-change variables.
Split plot designs
• A split-plot design is an experimental design in which
researchers are interested in studying two factors in which:
– One of the factors is “easy” to change or vary.
– One of the factors is “hard” to change or vary.
• This type of design was developed in 1925 by mathematician
Ronald Fisher for use in agricultural experiments.
• To illustrate the idea of the split-plot design, consider an
example in which researchers want to study the effects of two
irrigation methods (Factor A) and two fertilizers (Factor B) on
crop yield.
Split plot---Example
• In this particular example, it’s not possible to apply different

irrigation methods to areas smaller than one field, but
it is possible to apply different fertilizers to small areas.
• Thus, if we have four fields then we can randomly assign one
of the irrigation methods (A1 and A2) to each field:
Split plot---Example
• Then we can split each field in half and randomly assign one
fertilizer (B1 and B2) to each half:
Split-Plot Designs
• Multi-factor experiments use multiple (different) experimental
units for the various factors in an experiment
• To visualize this, think of applying multiple treatments in a
sequence
• The levels of the first factor are applied to experimental units
using some form of randomization
• The levels of second Factor are applied to sub-units within the
application of the first factor
• The experimental unit used for the application of the first factor
has been split, forming the experimental units for the application
of the levels of the second treatment
• Are extremely common, and typically result from logistical
restrictions, practicality, or efficiency
RCBD-split block design
Split-plot Design
• In some multifactor factorial experiments, we may be unable to
completely randomize the order of the runs
• This often results in a generalization of the factorial design called
a split-plot design
• E.g. a paper manufacturer who is interested in three different pulp
preparation methods (the methods differ in the amount of
hardwood in the pulp mixture)
• Four different cooking temperatures for the pulp and wishes to
study the effect of these two factors on the tensile strength of the
paper
• Each replicate of a factorial experiment requires 12 observations,
and the experimenter has decided to run three replicates:
• This will require a total of 36 runs
Split-plot Design
The experimental procedures in split plot
• First batch of pulp is produced by one of the three methods
under study
• Then this batch is divided into four samples each sample is
cooked at one of the four temperatures
• Second batch of pulp is made up using another of the three
methods
• Second batch is also divided into four samples that are tested at
the four temperatures
• The process is then repeated, until all three replicates (36 runs)
of the experiment are obtained
Split-plot Design
• A batch of pulp is used and observations are taken for all four
temperatures from that batch
• Because of the economics of preparing the batches and the size

of the batches, this is the only feasible way to run this experiment
• A completely randomized factorial experiment would require 36

batches of pulp, which is completely unrealistic
• The split-plot design requires only 9 batches total
• Obviously, the split-plot design has resulted in considerable

experimental efficiency
Split-plot Design
CCD
• Used extensively in building second-order response surface
models
• It is an efficient design for 2nd order model
• Generally, the CCD consists of a 2^k factorial (or fractional
factorial of resolution V) with nF factorial runs, 2k axial or star
runs, and nC center runs
• The practical deployment of a CCD often arises through
sequential experimentation
• The 2^k has been used to fit a first-order model, this model has
exhibited lack of fit, and the axial runs are then added to allow
the quadratic terms to be incorporated into the model
CCD
Addition of center Points to the 2^k Design
• When the curvature test is significant, we will now have to
assume a second-order model
• Unfortunately, we cannot estimate the unknown parameters

(the beta’s) in this model because there are six parameters to
estimate and the 2^2 design and center points have only five
independent runs
Addition of center Points to the 2^k Design
For k=2 &k=3
CCD
Use of center points:
• When a factorial experiment is conducted in an on-going process, consider
using the current operating conditions (or recipe) as the center point in the
design
• So the results obtained at these familiar runs may not be worse than
expected
• When the center points are set at the usual operating recipe in a factorial
experiment, the observed responses at these center points provide a rough
check of whether anything “unusual” occurred during the experiment
• Center point responses should be very similar to the responses observed

historically in routine process operation
• The center point responses can be plotted directly on the control chart as a
check of the manner in which the process was operating during the
experiment
Center Points
• Center points are used with quantitative factors
• Sometimes with majority quantitative and few qualitative
factors
• To illustrate, consider an experiment with two quantitative
factors, time and temperature, each at two levels, and one
qualitative factor, catalyst type, also with two levels (organic
and nonorganic)
CCD
• Two parameters in the CCD design
– the distance of the axial runs from the design center =alpha
– the number of center points nC
• Rotatablity: it is important for the second-order model to provide
good predictions throughout the region of interest
• Variance is the same at all points x that are at the same distance
from the design center
• The variance of predicted response is constant on spheres
• The contours of constant standard deviation of predicted response

are concentric circles
• A design with this property will leave the variance of unchanged
when the design is rotated about the center (0, 0, . . . , 0), hence
the name rotatable design
Rotratability
CCD
• Rotatability is a spherical property
• it is not important to have exact rotatability to have a good
design
• For a spherical region of interest, the best choice of from a
prediction variance viewpoint for the CCD is to set
• This design, called a spherical CCD, puts all the factorial and
axial design points on the surface of a sphere of radius
• When this region is a sphere, the design must include center
runs to provide reasonably stable variance of the predicted
response
• Three to five center runs are recommended
Box–Behnken Design
• Box and Behnken (1960) have proposed some three level
designs for fitting response surfaces
• These designs are formed by combining 2^k factorials with
incomplete block designs
• The resulting designs are usually very efficient in terms of the
number of required runs
• Are either rotatable or nearly rotatable
• Box–Behnken design is a spherical design, with all points lying

on a sphere of radius=
• It does not contain any points at the vertices of the cubic region
created by the upper and lower limits for each variable
• This could be advantageous when the points on the corners of the
cube represent factor-level combinations that are prohibitively
expensive or impossible to test because of physical process
constraints
Box-Behnken Designs
• The Box-Behnken design is an independent quadratic design
• It does not contain an embedded factorial or fractional factorial
design
• The treatment combinations are at the midpoints of edges of the
process space and at the center
• These designs are rotatable (or near rotatable) and require 3 levels
of each factor
• They have limited capability for orthogonal blocking compared to
the central composite designs
• The geometry of this design suggests a sphere within the process
space such that the surface of the sphere protrudes through each
face with the surface of the sphere tangential to the midpoint of
each edge of the space.
Box-Behnken Designs
• For three factors, the Box-Behnken design offers some
advantage in requiring a fewer number of runs
• For 4 or more factors, this advantage disappears
FCCD
• In many situations, the region of interest is cuboidal rather than
spherical
• In these cases, a useful variation of the central composite
design is the face centered central composite design or the face-
centered cube, in which alpha=1
• This design locates the star or axial points on the centers of the
faces of the cube
• This is also sometimes used because it requires only three
levels of each factor, and in practice it is frequently difficult to
change factor levels
FCCD
• These designs are not rotatable
• Require less center points compared to spherical CCD
• In practice, nC =2 or 3 is sufficient to provide good variance of
prediction throughout the experimental region
• But sometimes more center runs will be employed to give a
reasonable estimate of experimental error
Central Composite Design (CCD)
Box-Wilson (Central Composite Design)
• Points at the center of the experimental domain and the “star”
points outside this domain help to estimate the curvature of the
response surface
• It contains an imbedded factorial or fractional factorial design
with center points augmented with a group of 'star points' that
allow estimation of curvature
• The distance from the center of the design space to a factorial point
is ±1 unit for each factor (i.e. Levels of the points of a factorial
design are ±1)
• The distance from the center of the design space to a star point or
star designs are ±α where |α| > 1
• The precise value of α depends on properties desired for the design
and on the number of factors
CCD
• Similarly, the number of center point runs the design should
have depends on certain properties required for the design
• A CCD design with k factors has 2k star points
• The star points represent new extreme values (low and high)
for each factor in the design
Generation of a Central Composite Design for

Two Factors
CCD
• Frequently used for building a second-order polynomial for the
response variables in response surface methodology without
using a complete full factorial design of experiments
• To establish the coefficients of a polynomial with quadratic

terms, at least three levels of each factor is required in the design
• In CCD, there are three different points:

– Factorial points: vertices of the n-dimensional cube which are coming
from the full or fractional factorial design where the factor levels are
coded to –1, + 1
– Central points: the point at the centre of the design space
– Axial points: located on the axes of the coordinate system symmetrically
with respect to the central point at a distance α from the design centre
CCD---Face cantered
• In face-centred CCD, a k factor three-level experimental design
requires 2k + 2k + C experiments
– k is the number of factors
– 2k points are in the corners of the cube representing the experimental
domain (8)
– 2k axial points are in the centre of each face of the cube [(± α, 0,…0), (0, ±
α,...0),… (0, 0,… ± α)\ (6)
– C points are the replicates in the centre of the cube that are necessary to
estimate the variability of the experimental measurements(6)
– Total of 20 experimental runs
– i.e. repeatability of the phenomenon which carries out the lack-of-fit or
curvature test for the model
• The centre points may vary from three to six
CCD---Face cantered
• The example of three-level three-factor FCC design
• The value of α is chosen here as 1
• The upper and lower limits of a factor are coded as + 1 and −1
• Generally, the experimental runs are conducted in random
order
CCD---Rotatable
• The most widely used for modelling a second-order response
surface
• considered when the variance of the predicted response at any
point depends only on the distance of the point from the centre
point of design
• It provides the uniformity of prediction error achieved by proper
choice of α
• All points at the same radial distance (r) from the centre point
have the same magnitude of prediction error
• For a given number of variables, the α required to achieve
rotatability is computed as α = (nf)1/4, where nf is the number of
points in the 2k factorial design
CCD---Rotatable
• A rotatable CCD consists of 2k fractional factorial points, augmented by 2k
axial points [(± α, 0,…0),(0, ± α,...0), (0, 0,… ± α)] and nc centre points (0,
0, 0, 0…,0)
• Here also, the centre points vary from three to six
• With proper choice of nc the CCD can be made orthogonal or it can be made
uniform precision design
• It means that the variance of response at origin is equal to the variance of
response at a unit distance from the origin
• Considering uniform precision, for three-factor experimentation, eight (23)
factorial points, six axial points (2 × 3) and six centre runs, a total of 20
experimental runs may be considered and the value of α is (8)1/4 = 1.682
Face-centred CCD with 3 factors
Different CCD designs
CCD Type Descriptions
• CCC designs are the original form of the central composite design
• The star points are at some distance from the center based on the
properties desired for the design and the number of factors in the
Circumscribe design
• The star points establish new extremes for the low and high
d settings for all factors
(CCC) • These designs have circular, spherical, or hyper spherical
symmetry and require 5 levels for each factor
• Augmenting an existing factorial or resolution V fractional
factorial design with star points can produce this design
• The limits specified for factor settings are truly limits,
• CCI design uses the factor settings as the star points and creates a
Inscribed factorial or fractional factorial design within those limits
• A CCI design is a scaled down CCC design with each factor level
(CCI)
of the CCC design divided by α to generate the CCI design)
• Requires 5 levels of each factor
• In this design the star points are at the center of each face
of the factorial space, so α = ± 1
Face • Requires 3 levels of each factor
Centered(CCF)
• Augmenting an existing factorial or resolution V design
with appropriate star points can also produce this design
Types of CCD
• The CCC explores the largest process space and the CCI explores
the smallest process space
• Both the CCC and CCI are rotatable designs
• The CCF is not rotatable design
• In the CCC design, the design points describe a
circle circumscribed about the factorial square
• For three factors, the CCC design points describe a sphere around
the factorial cube
• The value of α is chosen to maintain rotatability
• To maintain rotatability, the value of α depends on the number of
experimental runs in the factorial portion of the CCD:
α=[number of factorial runs]1/4
• If the factorial is a full factorial, then α=[2k]1/4
• However, the factorial portion can also be a fractional factorial
design of resolution V.
Determining α for Rotatability
Number of Factorial Scaled Value for α
Factors Portion Relative to ±1
2 22 22/4 = 1.414
3 23 23/4 = 1.682
4 24 24/4 = 2.000
5 25-1 24/4 = 2.000
5 25 25/4 = 2.378
6 26-1 25/4 = 2.378
6 26 26/4 = 2.828
Orthogonal blocking
• The value of α also depends on whether or not the design is orthogonally
blocked
• The design is divided into blocks such that the block effects do not affect
the estimates of the coefficients in the second order model
• Under some circumstances, the value of α allows simultaneous rotatability
and orthogonality
BLOCK X X
• One such example for k = 2 is shown in the 1 2
1 -1 -1
table: 1 1 -1
1 -1 1
1 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 0
2 -1.414 0
2 1.414 0
2 0 -1.414
2 0 1.414
2 0 0
2 0 0
Structural Comparisons of CCC (CCI), CCF, and Box-Behnken
Designs for 3 Factors
CCC (CCI) CCF Box-Behnken
Rep X1 X2 X3 Rep X1 X2 X3 Rep X1 X2 X3
1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 0
1 +1 -1 -1 1 +1 -1 -1 1 +1 -1 0
1 -1 +1 -1 1 -1 +1 -1 1 -1 +1 0
1 +1 +1 -1 1 +1 +1 -1 1 +1 +1 0
1 -1 -1 +1 1 -1 -1 +1 1 -1 0 -1
1 +1 -1 +1 1 +1 -1 +1 1 +1 0 -1
1 -1 +1 +1 1 -1 +1 +1 1 -1 0 +1
1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 0 +1
1 -1.682 0 0 1 -1 0 0 1 0 -1 -1
1 1.682 0 0 1 +1 0 0 1 0 +1 -1
1 0 -1.682 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 +1
1 0 1.682 0 1 0 +1 0 1 0 +1 +1
1 0 0 -1.682 1 0 0 -1 3 0 0 0
1 0 0 1.682 1 0 0 +1
6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0
Total Runs = 20 Total Runs = 20 Total Runs = 15
Factor Settings for CCC and CCI Designs for 3Factors
Central Composite Central Composite
Circumscribed CCC Inscribed CCI
SN X1 X2 X3 SN X1 X2 X3
1 10 10 10 1 12 12 12
2 20 10 10 2 18 12 12
3 10 20 10 3 12 18 12
4 20 20 10 4 18 18 12 Factorial
5 10 10 20 5 12 12 18 points in
the design
6 20 10 20 6 18 12 18
7 10 20 20 7 12 12 18
8 20 20 20 8 18 18 18
9 6.6 15 15 * 9 10 15 15
10 23.4 15 15 * 10 20 15 15
11 15 6.6 15 * 11 15 10 15
Star
12 15 23.4 15 * 12 15 20 15
points
13 15 15 6.6 * 13 15 15 10
14 15 15 23.4 * 14 15 15 20
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
16 15 15 15 16 15 15 15
17 15 15 15 17 15 15 15 System
18 15 15 15 18 15 15 15 recomm
19 15 15 15 19 15 15 15 ended
20 15 15 15 20 15 15 15 center
points
CCC vs CCI
• In the CCC design how the low and high values of each factor
have been extended to create the star points
• In the CCI design, the specified low and high values become the
star points
• The system computes appropriate settings for the factorial part of
the design inside those boundaries
Factor Settings for CCF & Box-Behnken Designs for 3 Factors
CCF Box-Behnken
SN X1 X2 X3 SN X1 X2 X3
1 10 10 10 1 10 10 15
2 20 10 10 2 20 10 15
3 10 20 10 3 10 20 15
4 20 20 10 4 20 20 15
5 10 10 20 5 10 15 10
6 20 10 20 6 20 15 10
7 10 20 20 7 10 15 20
8 20 20 20 8 20 15 20
9 10 15 15 * 9 15 10 10
10 20 15 15 * 10 15 20 10
11 15 10 15 * 11 15 10 20
12 15 20 15 * 12 15 20 20
13 15 15 10 * 13 15 15 15
14 15 15 20 * 14 15 15 15
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
16 15 15 15
17 15 15 15
18 15 15 15
19 15 15 15
20 15 15 15
Summary of Properties of Classical RSDs
Design Type Comment
• CCC designs provide high quality predictions over the entire design space, but
require factor settings outside the range of the factors in the factorial part
• Note: When the possibility of running a CCC design is recognized before starting a
CCC
factorial experiment, factor spacings can be reduced to ensure that ± for each
coded factor corresponds to feasible (reasonable) levels
• Requires 5 levels for each factor
• CCI designs use only points within the factor ranges originally specified, but do not
CCI provide the same high quality prediction over the entire space compared to the CCC
• Requires 5 levels of each factor
• CCF designs provide relatively high quality predictions over the entire design space
and do not require using points outside the original factor range.
CCF • However, they give poor precision for estimating pure quadratic coefficients.
• These designs require fewer treatment combinations than a central composite design
in cases of 3 or 4 factors
• The Box-Behnken design is rotatable (or nearly so) but it contains regions of poor
prediction quality like the CCI
Box-Behnken
• Its "missing corners" may be useful when the experimenter should avoid combined
factor extremes
• This property prevents a potential loss of data in those cases
Number of Runs Required by CC and Box-Behnken Designs
Number of Factors Central Composite Box-Behnken

2 13 (5 center points) -
3 20 (6 center point runs) 15
4 30 (6 center point runs) 27
5 33 (fractional factorial) or 46
52 (full factorial)
6 54 (fractional factorial) or 54
91 (full factorial)
Desirable Features for Response Surface
Designs
• Satisfactory distribution of information across the experimental region
– rotatability
• Fitted values are as close as possible to observed values
– minimize residuals or error of prediction
• Good lack of fit detection
• Internal estimate of error
• Constant variance check
• Transformations can be estimated
• Suitability for blocking
• Sequential construction of higher order designs from simpler designs
• Minimum number of treatment combinations
• Good graphical analysis through simple data patterns
• Good behavior when errors in settings of input variables occur
Prediction variances of 2-factor R, O&RO CC designs
Parameters of R,O,RO CC designs
The number of experiments to perform in a CC design is determined by the

following formula when the factorial design is full: N = 2k + 2k + N0
Nf=the number of experiments of a factorial design

N=total number of trials
k is the number of factors
Plackett-Burman design
• The most efficient method to conduct a screening phase of a Fractional Factorial
DOE
• Used in the screening phase when there is a large number of control factors
• It minimizes the runs by restricting factors to two-level factors and eliminating
the analysis of any interaction effects
• Reduces the number of test runs to the absolute minimum that will provide main
effect calculations using a balanced and orthogonal matrix
• The test runs will always be in blocks of four to maintain the balanced and
orthogonal aspect of the analysis
• The number of factors can be up to one less than the number of runs
• So, 11 factors can be analyzed with 12 runs. However, 12 factors will need to
jump up to the next block of four so that many factors will require 16 runs
• Only applied at two-level factors, no multi-level factors
• It only determines main effects
• All interaction effects are confounded with a main effect
• If the true significant aspect of the product, process or system
design was due an interaction effect, this technique would be
irrelevant
• But for a screening study, the risk of missing critical effects will be
less
• Attempting to create the test matrix by hand is very difficult

• A statistical analysis such as Minitab is used to set up the test
matrix
• Since screening study is normally completed with only two-level
factors, this constraint is not a barrier to the use of the technique

• If more than ten factors are used , consider using Plackett-Burman
design
• If less than four factors are used, a full factorial is prefered
• Normally, if an interaction effect is significant, at least on or more
of the interacting factors will be significant
Multiple Linear Regression Models(MLRMs)
Fitting Regression Models
Fitting Regression Models
Estimation of the Parameters in LRMs
Examples

Experiments & Design of Experiments (Doe)

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Experiments & Design of Experiments (Doe)

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Experiments & Design of Experiments (DoE)

• Performing experiments to measure the effects of one or more

• A systematic cost efficient way to develop understanding of a

• Simple Random Sample(SRS): in an experimental setting, a SRS of

Representative samples for

• Parameters : a numerical characteristic of a population or a

• Statistic: a numerical characteristic that is computed from a

• Distribution: a tabular, graphical, or theoretical description of

 Responses or outputs ”Y”

Factors or inputs “X”

2. Running the experiment(Execution)---collection of data

1. Technology commercialization and product

2. Process development activities

• Selection of design parameters to make robust products for

• Nearly applied in all fields of engineering and business

• Observing a system or process while it is in operation

• The great New York Yankees catcher Yogi Berra said

• i.e to really understand cause-and-effect relationships in a

• In other words, you need to conduct experiments on the system

• Experiments are required to demonstrate that these theories are

• An experiment is a test or series of runs in which purposeful

• It consist of new product design and formulation, manufacturing

• Aims to develop a process which is minimally affected by

• There are also many applications of designed experiments in a

Objective of the experimenter (the engineer) is to determine which

The engineer decides to subject a number of alloy specimens or test

The average hardness of the specimens treated in each quenching

– Factorial approach (invented in the 1920’s)

– Fractional Factorial Experiment (only subset of possible runs are used)

• Interaction between type of • A two-factor factorial

• To set the influential x’s so that y is almost

• To set the influential x’s so that variability

• To set the influential x’s so that the effects

– Reduced variability and closer conformance to nominal or target

– Reduced development time

– Reduced overall costs

Factor screening or characterization

• The use of a known & understood probabilistic mechanism to

• Eliminate potential biases from the results and conclusions

• Sequence of performing individual runs of the experiment

• Statistical methods require observations(errors) to be

• Effects of extraneous factors can be averaged out

• Protects against the effect of uncontrolled and/or

E.g. If all the experimental units subjected to one

Bad Design Randomized Design

• E.g. our estimates of the mean become less variable as the

• It helps to obtain an estimate of the experimental error

• Includes other factors in experiment which

Blocked design Blocked design

• Simple comparative experiments are preliminary statistical

Dot diagrams, histograms, and box plots are

Probability distribution function Probability Density function

 F-test compares variance among treatment means vs. the variance of

• When the variances are not equal we will generally try to

• Using a metric where the variation is equal we can use complex

• Illustrates the blocking principle

• Special case of RBD

the Means model

The error incorporates sources of variability such as;

The effects model

• The above two models are called the one-way or single-factor

• These models are linear statistical models

• The errors are normally & independently distributed