Do It Now

Activity:
Produce a flow chart
beginning at the mouth
and ending at the anus
of the route of food
through the alimentary
canal.

Stretch:
Add in organs in the
other digestive organs.
State the function of
each organ

Complete in Silence Please

Learning Question: Explain how products are digested and absorbed
by the body, naming specific enzymes and
14/11/22 organs.
To secure an
understanding by
Describing the
structure and
function of digestive
organs.

To further
develop an
understanding by
Explaining the role of
enzymes in digestion,
naming examples.

To achieve
excellence by
Explaining how
monosaccharides, Digestion: break down (food) in the alimentary
amino acids, and canal into substances that can be absorbed and
triglycerides are used by the body.
absorbed. Alimentary Canal: Passage from mouth to anus.
 A-Level Biology
Definition
Lacteals
Lymphatic vessels found at the centre of villi.

Cavity / Hollow part of a structure. Lumen

Emulsified lipid droplets Micelles

Chylomicrons
The product of triglycerides associating with cholesterol and lipoproteins

Movement out of a cell Exocytosis

The small intestine Ileum
The large intestine Colon
A biological catalyst, produced by aEnzyme
gland

Hydrolysis
Break down a compound by a chemical reaction with water

Assimilate
Nutrients in food are taken into the cells of the body
 A-Level Biology
Definition
Class of sugars (e.g. glucose) that cannot be hydrolysed to give a simpler sugar.
Monosaccharide
A class of sugars whose molecules contain two monosaccharide residues.
Disaccharide
a carbohydrate (e.g. starch, cellulose, or glycogen) whose molecules consist of a
Polysaccharide
number of sugar molecules bonded together.
a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
Monomer
Molecular structure built up chiefly or completely from a large number of
similar units bonded together
Polymer
Fat
Lipid
Peptide
A compound made of two or more linked amino acids (smaller than proteins)

A bond which links a carbohydrate to another molecule (which may be another

carbohydrate).
Glycosidic Bond
Breakdown of fat into smaller molecules, this provides a larger surface area.
Emulsification (in digestion)
 A-Level Biology
Stages of Digestion
1) Physical breakdown
Teeth & muscles (churning)

2) Chemical breakdown
Hydrolyse large insoluble molecules.
Carried out by enzymes.
Enzymes function by hydrolysis
Hydrolysis uses water to break chemical bonds.
Enzymes are ‘specific’
Meaning there are many digestive enzymes!
 A-Level Biology
Chemical Digestion
Carbohydrases
Carbohydrate  monosaccharides (by hydrolysis)
Lipases
Lipids  glycerol & fatty acids (by hydrolysis)
Proteases
Protein  amino acids (by hydrolysis)
 A-Level Biology
Digesting Carbohydrates
A large molecule is broken down into a smaller one.
These smaller molecules are then further broken
down into monomers.
Different enzymes act at different stages of
digestion.
Enzymes need to be added in a correct sequence…
 A-Level Biology
1) Amylase
Produced in the mouth (salivary) and pancreas
(pancreatic).
Hydrolyses glycosidic bonds of starch.
This produces disaccharide maltose (2 linked glucose
units).

2) Maltase
Is a disaccharidase.
Produced in the ileum.
Hydrolyses maltose into α (Alfa) glucose
EXAM QUESTION
 EXAM
QUESTION

E
EXAM QUESTION
 A-Level Biology
The Process…
Saliva mixed with food.
Contains salivary amylase (SA).
Starch  maltose (hydrolysis). Salts help maintain a neutral pH (optimum
enzyme pH for SA).
Food enters stomach, acid denatures SA to prevent further breakdown of
the starch.
Food passed to ileum, mixes with pancreatic juice.
Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase, this ensures the remaining
starch is hydrolysed to maltose.
Alkaline salts produced by the ileum and pancreas ensure optimum pH for
enzyme activity (7).
 A-Level Biology
The Process, continued…
Ileum muscles push the food along (peristalsis). The
lining of which produce maltase (a disaccharidase).
Maltase is released into the lumen of the ileum, but
also forms part of the lining to the ileum.
This is how it gets its name ‘membrane-bound
disaccharidase.
This hydrolyses maltose into alpha glucose (which would
have originally come from starch)!
 A-Level Biology
Sucrose and Lactose
These are disaccharides.
Sucrase breaks down sucrose into glucose and
fructose.
Lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and
galactose
 A-Level Biology
Digesting Lipids…
Firstly lipids are split into micelles.
Bile salts (produced by the liver) ensure this.
This is emulsification.
This increases surface area to ensure lipases work
more effectively.
 A-Level Biology
Digesting Lipids, continued…
Triglycerides are lipid groups bound by ester bonds of linked
molecules of 3 or more fatty acids molecules and one molecule
of glycerol
What are triglycerides?

Monoglycerides consist of one fatty acid molecule and one

molecule of glycerol
What are monoglycerides?
Broken down by lipases.
Lipases are produced by the pancreas.
They hydrolyse the ester bond in triglycerides.
This form fatty acids and monoglycerides.
Digesting Proteins…
Endopeptidases
Hydrolyses the peptide bonds between amino acids in the
central region of a proteinFunction…
molecule forming a series of
peptide molecules
Exopeptidases
Hydrolyses the peptide bonds on the terminal amino acids of
the peptide molecules formed by endopeptidases. In this
Function…
way they progressively release dipeptides and single amino
acids.
Dipeptidases
Hydrolyses the bond between the two amino acids of a
dipeptide. Dipeptidases are membrane- bound, being part of
the cell-surface membrane of epithelial cells lining the ileum
Function…
EXAM QUESTION
 Do It Now
Challenge: describe the difference between endopeptidases,
exopeptidases and dipeptidases
Food type Enzyme Source Products
Carbohydrates Salivary amylase Salivary glands Maltose

Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Maltose

Maltase Small intestine Glucose

Proteins Pepsin Stomach Peptides

Trypsin Pancreas Peptides

Peptidases Small intestine Amino Acids

Fats Lipase Pancreas Fatty acids and
glycerol

Complete in Silence Please

Learning Question: Explain how products are digested and absorbed
by the body, naming specific enzymes and
14/11/22 organs.
To secure an
understanding by
Describing the
structure of the
ileum.

To further
develop an
understanding by
Explaining how
triglycerides are
absorbed.
Triglyceride: Triglycerides are lipid groups bound
To achieve by ester bonds of linked molecules of 3 or more
excellence by fatty acids molecules and one molecule of
Use knowledge of the glycerol.
above and Chylomicron: The product of triglycerides
successfully answer associating with cholesterol and lipoproteins.
challenging exam Micelle: Emulsified lipid droplets.
questions. Lacteal: Lymphatic vessel.
 Duodenum and ileum

• The first 20cm of the small intestine is

known as the duodenum. This is where
the secretions from the liver and
pancreas are added

• The rest of the intestine is called the

ileum and is about 5m long

• This is where the final processes of

digestion occur BUT this area is highly
specialised for absorption, with several
features which contribute to it’s
efficiency
 e i le u m?
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Can y i en d to d ro m G CS
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Answers - Villi and microvilli
 Absorption

1. Most absorption takes place in the small and large

intestines

2. Mainly digested food in the small intestine and water

in the large intestine

3. It is long, providing a large surface area for

absorption to occur

4. There are large numbers of villi in the mucosa

increasing the surface area again
Structure of the ileum
 Absorption

5. The villi possess smooth muscle fibres,

which contract and relax, mixing up the
contents and bringing the epithelial cells
into contact with digested food

6. There are microvilli on the columnar

epithelial cells to further increase the
surface area
Cells which layer‘Epithelial
Define the outside of an organ
Cell’

Cells which provide the inner layer of an organ

Define ‘Endothelial Cell’
 Knowledge check + Answers (Green Pen)

Q1. State what structure is responsible for most of

the nutrient absorption.
Ileum / Small intestine
Q2. State where water absorption occurs in the
gut.
Colon / Large intestine

Q3. Explain the adaptations of the gut for

efficient absorption.
Large numbers of intestinal villi increase the
surface area along the inner mucosal surface of the
intestine to increase the rate of absorption.
 Microvilli

• 1µm long and

0.1µm wide

• A single villus
has lots of
MICROVILLI
 Villi

7. Each villus has an extensive capillary

network so that the absorbed food is
transported away quickly, maintaining the
concentration gradient

8. There is a lacteal in each villus into which

fats are absorbed
 Villi

GOBLET CELLS
secrete mucus

Blood &
lymphatic
capillaries are
all important in
removing
digested food.
 Villi

7. There are large numbers of mucus-secreting

goblet cells helping the passage of food

8. As the tips of the villi are constantly damaged

by the passage of food these cells can be
easily replaced by cells from the base of the
villi. These cells migrate to the surface and
gradually move up the villus until being shed
from the tip (taking about 5-7 days)
 Knowledge check + Answers (Green Pen)

Q1. State the difference between villi and microvilli.

A single villi within the small intestine will be
made up of intestinal epithelial cells. Each of the
cells will have multiple hair-like projections from
the cell which a microvilli.
Q2. Describe how the diffusion gradient is maintained
across the villus.

The capillary network is closely associated with

the villi. Anything absorbed is quickly transported
away to continually provide a low concentration of
absorbed
Q3. Describesubstances in the
the role of the capillary.
lymphatic vessels.

To absorb fats from the small intestine.

 Activity

1. Each pair is given a blank A3 sheet.

2. There is an A3 poster on the teacher’s desk.
3. One member of your team will have 30 seconds to view
the information on the A3 sheet
4. Then you will have 1 minute to get down as much of the
information as possible on your blank sheet – only your
partner can write – you have to describe to them
5. Then rotate.
6. Whichever group has the most detail (accuracy counts
too!) wins!
By diffusion
 Absorption of fats

1. Monoglycerides
and fatty acids
associate with bile
salts (micelles 5 nm
– emulsified lipid
droplets)

2. Micelles break down when they come into contact the

epithelial cells, releasing the monoglycerides and fatty acids
which diffuse across the membrane
 Absorption of fats
Interstitial / tissue
fluid 3. Once inside the epithelial cells the monoglycerides
and fatty acids are transported to the endoplasmic
reticulum and into the Golgi apparatus where they
are recombined to form triglycerides.

4. The triglycerides combine with

cholesterol and lipoproteins to
form structures called
chylomicrons, which are particles
Lymphatic vessel adapted for transport of lipids

5. Chylomicrons move out of the epithelial cells by exocytosis where

they enter the lymphatic capillaries called lacteals found in the
centre of each villus
 Knowledge check + Answers (Green Pen)

Q1. What causes fat globules to emulsify?

They combine with bile salts to form an emulsification
which allows the fats to be small enough for digestion by
lipases into fatty acids and glycerol.
Q2. What is the role of the Golgi apparatus in lipid
digestion?
Monoglycerides and fatty acids are transported by the
endoplasmic reticulum and taken to the Golgi where they
are recombined to form triglycerides

Q3. What are chylomicrons and what is their role in

fat absorption?
Chylomicrons are triglycerides that have associated with
cholesterol and lipoproteins. This forms a structure that
enables the triglycerides to leave the cell via exocytosis.
EXAM QUESTION
EXAM QUESTION
 EXAM
QUESTION
 Absorption of amino acids and
carbohydrates
• Amino acids and
monosaccharides are
absorbed by facilitated
diffusion & active
transport

• After a meal there will be

a higher concentration of
amino acids and
monosaccharides in the
ileum so a concentration
gradient will exist &
diffusion of molecules will
occur into the blood
capillaries
 Absorption of amino acids and
carbohydrates
• This process is quite slow so it is supplemented by active
transport involving a sodium-potassium pump

• In the membrane of the epithelial cells are glucose

transporter proteins, which have binding sites for both
glucose molecules and sodium ions

• The sodium-potassium
pump actively
transports sodium ions
out of the cells against
the electrochemical
gradient
Absorption of glucose

Transport proteins
 Co-transport of glucose

2. 4.
Glu

1. Glu

3. Glu
Glu

1. Glucose molecules and sodium molecules bind to transporter proteins

2. Sodium ions diffuses into the cells along their electrochemical gradient,
carrying the glucose molecules with them
3. Inside the cells, the glucose molecules dissociate from the transporter
protein
4. The glucose concentrations of the cell increases and the glucose moves into
the blood by facilitated diffusion
 Knowledge check…

1. List three organelles that you would expect to be numerous and/or well
developed in an epithelial cell of the ileum, giving a reason for your choice in
each case.

1. Name the other chemical that moves across epithelial cells with glucose
molecules during co-transport.

1. In addition to having microvilli, state one other feature of the epithelial

cells of the ileum that would increase the rate of absorption of amino acids.
 Knowledge check…Answers – Correct your
work!
1. List three organelles that you would expect to be numerous and/or well
developed in an epithelial cell of the ileum, giving a reason for your choice in
each case.

Endoplasmic reticulum to re-synthesis triglycerides from monoglycerides and fatty

acids; Golgi apparatus to form chylomicrons from triglycerides, cholesterol and
lipoproteins; Mitochondria to provide ATP required for the co-transport of glucose
and amino acid molecules.
1. Name the other chemical that moves across epithelial cells with glucose
molecules during co-transport.

Sodium ions
1. In addition to having microvilli, state one other feature of the epithelial
cells of the ileum that would increase the rate of absorption of amino acids.

An increase in the number/density of protein channels and carrier proteins.

 Absorption of the Products
of Digestion
I can: Level:

Explain how the structure of the ileum is adapted for the

C
function of absorption

Explain how monosaccharides and amino acids are

B
absorbed

Explain how triglycerides are absorbed A/A*

Keywords: villi, microvilli, lumen, diffusion, exocytosis, lacteals,

chylomicrons, micelles
 Exam Questions

1. (a)     Dietary recommendations are that lipid intake should make up 30% of energy intake. The
recommended energy intake for most women aged 19-49 is 8100 kJ day–1.The energy content of lipid is 37.8
kJ g–1. Calculate the recommended lipid intake per day for these women. Show your working.
  

(8100
Answer ÷ 30)*100 = 2,430kJ dayg
...................................................
-1
;
(2) 2,430 ÷ 37.8 kJ g = 65.285;
-1

In humans, triglycerides are the main form of dietary lipids. They are digested in the gut and the products of
digestion areTwo absorbed marks by theforsmall
correct answer of 64.285/64.3/64;
intestine.
(allow
(b)     Describe 1 mark for (8100/100
a biochemical test that × 30)be
could / 37.8)
performed on a sample of food to determine whether
it contained triglycerides.
.............................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................
(2)
dissolve in / add ethanol then mix with water;
emulsion / white colour indicates triglycerides present;
 Exam Questions
1. (c)     The diagram shows the events that occur in the absorption of monoglycerides and fatty
acids. These molecules enter the epithelial cells of the small intestine by diffusion. Once inside they are
reassembled into triglycerides in organelle Q. The triglyceride molecules are formed into chylomicrons in
organelle T. Chylomicrons are made from many triglyceride molecules surrounded with protein
molecules. The chylomicrons leave the cell and enter vessel S.

(i)      Explain the importance of the structures labelled P.

..........................................................................................................................................................
increase the surface area for absorption; (ignore wrong ref. to name) (1)
tissue fluid/extracellular fluid;S: lymph
(ii)     Name: R: .............................................. vessel/lymph capillary/lacteal;
...........................................................(2)
(iii)     Describe the role played by organelle U in the formation of chylomicrons.
proteins are synthesised by U;involvement of ribosomes;
........................................................................................................................................................................
protein isolation / transport (inside RER); vesicle formation;
......................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
exocytosis (iv)   / description
Suggest howof;the chylomicrons leave the epithelial cell. Give a reason for your answer.
because of size / too large to leave by other methods;
........................................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................................
 Exam Questions
2.  The diagram shows one method by which amino acids are absorbed from the small intestine into
the blood. They are co-transported into the epithelial cell with sodium ions (Na +) at point X on the
diagram. Normally, the concentration of sodium ions inside the epithelial cell is low.
Dinitrophenol (DNP) prevents oxidative
phosphorylation. When treated with DNP,
the sodium-potassium pump at Y no longer
works. As a result, the concentration of
sodium ions in the cell rises and amino acid
absorption stops.
(i)      Explain why pump Y will not work in
the presence of DNP.
Lack of ATP; Pump = active transport /
.......................................................................
requires energy / ATP provides energy /
.......................................................................
transport is up concentration gradient;
.......................................................................
......................................................................
(2)
(ii)      Explain why sodium ions and amino
acids are not absorbed from the lumen of
Conc. of Na insideintestine
the+ small cell no longer less thanofconc.
in the presence DNP.in
lumen /no.......................................................................
longer a concentration gradient; No
(facilitated) diffusion of Na+ ions possible / amino
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
acid absorption requires diffusion of Na + ions into
cell; ......................................................................
(2)
Diffusion (iii)     By what
/ facilitated mechanism would amino
diffusion;
acids leave the epithelial cell at point Z?
 Exam Questions
3.           The diagram shows part of the gut wall of an animal.
(a)     (i)      Name the structure labelled X.
villus; (reject microvilli)
....................................................................................................(1)
(ii)     Describe the function of the layer labelled Y.
........................................................................................................
contracts / peristalsis;
........................................................................................................
moves/pushes/forces food through gut;
........................................................................................................
................................................................................................(2)
(b)     Describe and explain how two features shown in the
diagram increase the rate of absorption of digested food.
Feature 1
Description
many / projecting villi (X) (no double penalty for microvilli);
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
Explanation
large surface area (for absorption);
........................................................................................................
large/good blood supply / many capillaries/blood vessels;
........................................................................................................
Feature 2
Description
maintains concentration gradients / efficient removal of
........................................................................................................
digested products;
........................................................................................................
Explanation
thin outer layer / blood vessels near to surface;
........................................................................................................
short diffusion pathway;
....................................................................................................(4) (Total 7 marks)
 Exam Questions Name: …………………………………………………….
1. (a)     Dietary recommendations are that lipid intake should make
up 30% of energy intake. The recommended energy intake for most women
aged 19-49 is 8100 kJ day–1.The energy content of lipid is 37.8 kJ g–1.
Calculate the recommended lipid intake per day for these women. Show your
working.
  

Answer ................................................... g
(2)
In humans, triglycerides are the main form of dietary lipids. They are digested
in the gut and the products of digestion are absorbed by the small intestine.
(b)     Describe a biochemical test that could be performed on a
sample of food to determine whether it contained triglycerides.
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
................................ (2)
(ii)     Name: R: ..............................................
S: .............................................. (2)
(iii)     Describe the role played by organelle U in
the formation of chylomicrons.
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
(2)
(c)     The diagram shows the events that occur in the absorption of monoglycerides (iv)    Suggest how the chylomicrons leave the
and fatty acids. These molecules enter the epithelial cells of the small intestine by diffusion. Once
inside they are reassembled into triglycerides in organelle Q. The triglyceride molecules are epithelial cell. Give a reason for your answer.
formed into chylomicrons in organelle T. Chylomicrons are made from many triglyceride molecules ......................................................................................................
surrounded with protein molecules. The chylomicrons leave the cell and enter vessel S.
......................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
(2)

(Total 11 marks)
(i)      Explain the importance of the structures
labelled P.
......................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
 Exam Questions Name: …………………………………………………….

2.  The diagram shows one method by which amino acids are 3.  The diagram shows part of the gut wall of an animal.
absorbed from the small intestine into the blood. They are co-
transported into the epithelial cell with sodium ions (Na +) at point
X on the diagram. Normally, the concentration of sodium ions
inside the epithelial cell is low.

(a)     (i)      Name the structure labelled X.

Dinitrophenol (DNP) prevents oxidative phosphorylation. When
treated with DNP, the sodium-potassium pump at Y no longer
works. As a result, the concentration of sodium ions in the cell
rises and amino acid absorption stops.
(i)      Explain why pump Y will not work in the presence of DNP.
......................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)      Explain why sodium ions and amino acids are not
absorbed from the lumen of the small intestine in the presence
of DNP.
......................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)     By what mechanism would amino acids leave the epithelial
cell at point Z?
..................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)     Describe the function of the layer labelled Y.
......................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
(2)
(b)     Describe and explain how two features shown in the
diagram increase the rate of absorption of digested food.
Feature 1: Description
......................................................................................................
.
......................................................................................................
.
Explanation
......................................................................................................
.
......................................................................................................
.
(Total 7 marks)