ATOMIC STRUCTURE

An atom is the smallest particle of an

element and can take part in a chemical
reaction.
An atom consist of a nucleus(central part
of an atom) and a cloud of electrons that
move round the nucleus.
•The nucleus is a cluster of protons and
neutrons.
MODEL OF AN ATOM
• The mass of the particles is
measured in atomic mass
units rather than grams.
• Protons and electrons have
an electric charge.
Particle in Relative Relative
atom mass charge
Proton 1 +1

neutron 1 0

electron 1/1840 -1
 ATOMIC NUMBER
• ATOMIC NUMBER(PROTON NUMBER)
is the number of protons in an
atom.eg the atomic number
(proton number) for sodium is 11.
•So, sodium atom has 11
electrons
 
• So it has an equal number of
protons and electrons.
• Every atom has an equal
number of protons and
electrons.
• So atoms have no overall
charge.( electrically neutral)
 NUCLEON NUMBER.
• Protons and neutrons are in the
nucleus of the atom, so are called
nucleons.
• Total number of protons and neutrons
in an atom is called its nucleon number
or mass number
 NUCLIDE
• A nuclide is an atom having a specific number of
protons and neutrons. The notation (symbol) of a
nuclide is represented as follows:
A nucleon number
X symbol of element

Z atomic number

Nucleon number = number of protons + number

of neutrons
• The nuclide of sodium atom is shown
like this
23
Na
11 
• This means sodium atom has a nucleon
number of 23 and an atomic number of
11.
•So the number of neutrons is 12(23-11).
Exercise
Fill in the table below:
protons electrons neutrons Nucleon
Atom number

oxygen 8 8

fluorine 9 18

sodium 11 12

potassium 19 39

magnesium 12 12

phosphorus 15 16 31
 ELECTRON SHELLS
• The electrons in an atom circle around the
nucleus, at different energy levels from it,
• These energy levels are called electron
shells.
• The first shell, closest to the nucleus, is the
lowest energy level.
• The further a shell is from the nucleus, the
higher the energy level
• Electrons occupy the lowest
available energy level.
• But they can not all crowd
into the first shell, because a
shell can hold only a limited
number of electrons like this:
• So the electrons fill up the shells
one by one, starting with the first
shell.
• When a shell is full, they start a new
one.
• The maximum number of electrons
that a shell can accommodate is 2n2
where n = shell number
• shell number 1, n= 1, 2n2 = 2x 12 = 2

• Shell number 2, n =2 , 2n2 = 2x 22 = 8

• Shell number 3 ,n= 3, 2n2 = 2x 32 = 18

• Shell number 4, n= 4, 2n2 =2 x 42 = 32

ELEMENTS
• An element is a substance which is
made up of the same chemical atoms.
• An element is a pure substance which
cannot be split into two or more other
simpler substances by chemical means
• There are 103 known elements of which
92 are natural and 11 are artificial.
 SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS
• A chemical symbol is a short way of
representing an element.
• It consists of either a single capital
letter or two letters with the first being
capital and the second a small letter.
• In most cases a symbol is the first letter
of the English name of the element
Examples 
Hydrogen H Carbon C Fluorine F

Oxygen O Boron B Phosphorus P

Nitrogen N Iodine I Sulphur S

• Some elements have names which
begin with the same letter.
• These are represented with
symbols which consist of more than
one letter.
Examples
 
Aluminium Al Argon Ar
Barium Ba Bromine Br
Magnesium Mg Manganese Mn
Calcium Ca Chlorine Cl
• Some elements have their symbols
derived from their Latin names.
• Examples
• Sodium( Natrium) Na
• Potassium( Kalium) K
• Copper(cuprum)) Cu
• Iron(Ferrum) Fe
• Lead(plumbum) Pb
Silver(Argentum) Ag
Gold(Aurum) Au
Mercury(Hydragyrum) Hg
Tin(stannum) Sn
Antimony(stobum) Sb
 ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same proton number but different number of
neutrons. Generally, the symbol of an isotope is represented by

A
X
Z
Where X = symbol of element, A = nucleon number, Z = atomic number

EXAMPLES

Name of isotope symbol of isotope

Hydrogen-1 (protium) 1
H
1
2
Hydrogen-2 ( Deuterium) H
1
• Hydrogen-3(Tritium) 3

H
1
12
Carbon-12 C
6
Carbon-14 14
C
6
•Chlorine-35 35
Cl
17
Chlorine-37 37
Cl
17
Uranium-235 235
U
92
Uranium-238 238
U
92
 USES OF ISOTOPES
• Some isotopes are radioactive. This means its
nucleus is unstable and can break down(decay)
giving out radiation in the form of rays and tiny
particles as well as large amount of energy.
Radioactive isotopes are called Radioisotopes.
They are used
• To check for leaks in oil and gas pipes
• To treat cancer
• To determine the age of old remains
• To study the structure of organic compounds
NUCLEON NUMBERS OF THE FIRST 20 ELEMENTS.

element Atomic electrons neutrons Nucleon

number number
hydrogen 1 1 0 1
helium 2 2 2 4
lithium 3 3 3 6
berylium 4 4 4 8
boron 5 5 5 10
carbon 6 6 6 12
nitrogen 7 7 7 14
oxygen 8 8 8 16
fluorine 9 9 9 18
neon 10 10 10 20
Sodium 11 11 12 23
Magnesium 12 12 12 24
Aluminium 13 13 14 27
Silicon 14 14 14 28
Phosphorus 15 15 16 31
Sulphur 16 16 16 32
Chlorine 17 17 18 35
argon 18 18 18 36
potassium 19 19 20 39
calcium 20 20 20 40
ATOMIC ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE DIAGRAMS
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE DIAGRAMS OF THE FIRST 20 ELEMENTS
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
• A compound is a combination of two
or more elements.
• An ionic bond is formed when a
metallic atom transfers electrons to a
non metallic atom.
• The metal transfers the electrons in
the last shell(valence electrons) to the
last shell of the non metal.
 WHY COMPOUNDS FORM
• A full outer shell makes an
atom stable.
• The atoms of all other
elements have incomplete
outer shells.
• That is why they react.
• By reacting with each other,
atoms can obtain full outer
shells and so become stable.
• A stable full outer shell has
2,8 or 18 electrons.
 HOW SODIUM GETS A FULL OUTER SHELL

• A sodium atom has just 1

electron in its outer shell.
• It can obtain a full outer shell by
losing this electron to another
atom .
• It becomes a sodium ion
• The sodium ion has 11 protons
but only 10 electrons, so it has a
charge of +1
• The symbol for sodium is Na, so
the sodium ion is Na+ .
• The + means 1 positive charge
 HOW A CHLORINE ATOM GETS A
FULL OUTER SHELL
• A chlorine atom has 7 electrons
in its outer shell.
•It can reach a full shell by
accepting an electron from
another atom.
•It becomes a chloride ion.
• A chloride ion has a charge of -1,
so it is a negative ion. Its symbol
is Cl-
 IONS
• An ion is a charged particle.
• An atom becomes an ion when it
loses or gains electrons.
• It is charged because it contains
an unequal number of protons
and electrons.
 HOW SODIUM AND CHLORINE ATOMS
BOND
• A sodium atom can lose one electron,
and a chlorine atom can gain one, to
obtain full outer shells.
•The sodium atom loses its electron to
the chlorine atom, and two ions are
formed
• Two ions have opposite charges,
so they attract each other.
• The force of attraction between
them is strong. It is called an
IONIC BOND
 MAGNESIUM AND OXYGEN
• Magnesium atom has 2 outer
electrons and oxygen atom has 6.
•A magnesium atom loses its 2
electrons to an oxygen atom.
•Magnesium ion and oxide ion are
formed.
• The resulting compound is called
magnesium oxide.
• It has one magnesium ion for
each oxide, so its formula is
MgO.
• It has no overall charge.
 MAGNESIUM AND CHLORINE

• To obtain full outer shells, a

magnesium atom must lose 2
electrons and a chlorine atom must
gain 1 electron.
•So, each magnesium atom combines
with two chlorine atoms, to form
magnesium chloride.
• So the formula for magnesium
chloride is Mg Cl2 .
• It has no over all charge
 FORMATION OF MAGNESIUM FLUORIDE
• Magnesium atom loses two electrons by
transferring the electrons to fluorine atoms,
one each, making both stable.
• The loss of electrons forms a cation, Mg2+,
as it loses 2 electrons, and the gain of
electron forms anion, F-.
• The opposite charges acquired by both ions
attract to each other, forming a strong ionic
bond of MgF2
FORMATION OF MAGNESIUM FLUORIDE
 COVALENT BOND
• A covalent bond is formed when
two non-metal atoms share a pair
of electrons.
•Both atoms need to gain
electrons and obtain a full outer
electron shell.
 HYDROGEN
• A hydrogen atom has only
one electron.
•Its shell can hold two
electrons, so it is not full.
• When two hydrogen atoms get
close enough, their shells
overlap and then they can
share electrons.
• By sharing, each hydrogen
atom gains a full shell of two
electrons.
 MOLECULES
• A molecule is a group of atoms held
together by covalent bonds. Elements made
up of molecules are called MOLECULAR
ELEMENTS
• Elements made up of
molecules containing two
atoms are called DIATOMIC
elements.
• Examples: Cl2 O2 I2
F2 Br2 N2
 CHLORINE
• Chlorine atoms need a share
in one more electron to
obtain a full shell.
• So, two chlorine atoms bond
covalently like this:
• Since only one pair of electrons is
shared, the bond between the
atoms is called a SINGLE
COVALENT BOND or just a single
bond.
• In short, it is shown by a single
line like this: Cl- Cl
 OXYGEN MOLECULE
• An oxygen atom has six
outer electrons, so it needs a
share in two more to reach a
full shell.
• So each molecule must
contain two atoms.
• Since the oxygen atoms
share two pairs of electrons,
the bond between them is
called a DOUBLE BOND.
• It is shown like this: O=O
 NITROGEN
• A nitrogen atom has five outer
electrons, so it needs a share in
three more electrons to reach a
full shell.
•So the molecule must contain
two atoms. The formula is N2
• Since the nitrogen atoms share
three pairs of electrons, the
bond between them is called a
TRIPLE BOND.
• It can be shown like this: N≡N
 COVALENT COMMPOUNDS

A covalent compound is one

which has covalent bonds.
Examples
 METHANE
The formula of methane is
CH4 .A carbon atom shares
electrons with four hydrogen
atoms, and all reach full
shells.
• The shape of the methane
molecule is TETRAHEDRAL.
• The four bonds point to the
corners of a tetrahedron.
• The angles between the
hydrogen atoms are all the same
 AMMONIA
• Ammonia has the formula NH3 .
• The nitrogen atom shares
electrons with three hydrogen
atoms, and they all reach full
shells.
A MODEL OF AMMONIA MOLECULE
• The molecule is PYRAMIDAL
because of the repulsion
between electrons.
WATER MOLECULE
• The oxygen atom shares electrons
with two hydrogen atoms, and all
gain full shells.
• Because the non- bonding electrons
repel more strongly, the two pairs of
bonding get pushed together.
• So the molecule is angular in shape.
 HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
• The chlorine atom shares one
electron with the hydrogen atom
and both gain full shells.
• Since it has only two atoms, the
molecule is straight or linear
 CARBON DIOXIDE
• The carbon atom shares all four of its
electrons: two with each oxygen atom.
• So all the three atoms gain full shells.
• The two groups of bonding electrons
repel each other, and move as far apart
as possible
• The result is a linear
molecule. All the bonds are
double bonds, so the
molecule is shown like this:
O= C =O
• THE PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1 They have high melting and boiling

points. This is because the ionic
bonds are very strong, so it takes a lot
of heat energy to break up the lattice.
Note that magnesium oxide has a
higher melting and boiling point than
sodium chloride because its ions have
double the charge ,so its ionic bonds
are stronger.
2 They are usually soluble in
water. This is because the
water molecules can attract
the ions away from the
lattice. The ions then move
freely surrounded by water
molecules.
•3 They can conduct
electricity when they are
melted or dissolved. The
ions are free to move.
Since they are charged, this
means they can conduct
electricity.
• SOME PROPERTIES OF MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

1They have low melting

and boiling points. This is
because the forces
between the molecules
are weak
2 They do not conduct
electricity. This is
because the molecules
are not charged
3 They are usually
insoluble in water but
soluble in organic
solvents
 GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES
• DIAMOND is made of carbon atoms, held
together in a strong lattice.
• A carbon atom forms four covalent bonds .
• Each outer atom then bonds to three
more, and so on.
• Eventually, billions of carbon atoms are
bonded together in a giant covalent
structure.
 PROPERTIES OF DIAMOND
• It is very hard because each atom is held
together in place by four strong carbon-
carbon covalent bonds.
• It has a very high melting point because of
the strong carbon-carbon covalent bonds.
• It is a poor conductor of electricity because
there are no ions or free electrons to carry
the charge
 SILICA
• Silica, SiO2 , is similar to diamond.
• It occurs naturally as Quartz, the main
mineral in sand.
• Like diamond, it forms a giant molecular
structure.
• Each silicon atom bonds covalently to two
oxygen atoms.
• The result is a very hard substance with a
melting point of 17100C.
 GRAPHITE
• Graphite is made of carbon atoms.
• So, graphite and diamond are
ALLOTROPES.
• Allotropes are the different forms
of an element in the same physical
state.
• Graphite is soft.
• In graphite, each carbon atom
forms covalent bonds to three
others.
• This gives a ring of six atoms.
• The rings form flat sheets that lie
on top of each other, held
together by weak forces(Van der
Waal forces)
 PROPERTIES OF GRAPHITE
• It is soft and slippery. This is because
the sheets can slide over each other
easily.
• It is a good conductor of electricity. This
is because each carbon atom has four
outer electrons, but forms only three
bonds. So, the fourth electron is free to
move through the graphite, carrying a
charge
 USES OF DIAMOND
• To make tools for drilling and
cutting because it is the hardest
substance known
• In jewellery because it sparkles
when cut
 USES OF SILICA
• To make sand paper since it is hard
and scratches things
• To make glass and lenses because it
is hard and transparent
• To make bricks for lining furnaces
because it has a high melting point
 USES OF GRAPHITE
• As a lubricant for engines and locks
since it is soft and slippery
• For pencils since it is soft and dark in
colour
• For electrodes and connecting brushes
in generators because it is a good
conductor of electricity
 METALLIC BOND
• In metals, the atoms are packed tightly
together in a regular pattern.
• The tight packing allows outer
electrons to separate from their
atoms.
• The result is a lattice of ions in a “sea”
of electrons that are free to move
through the lattice.
• The metal ions are held together
by their attraction to the
electrons between them.
• The strong forces of attraction
between metal ions and
electrons are called metallic
bonds.
 SOME PROPERTIES OF METALS
1 They usually have high
melting points.
This is because it takes a lot of
energy to break up the lattice
with its strong metallic bonds.
2 They are malleable and ductile. Malleable
means they can be shaped and pressed into
shape .
Ductile means they can be drawn into wires.
This is because the layers can slide over each
other.
The layers can slide without the metallic
bond breaking because the electrons are
free to move too.
3 They are good conductors of
heat.
This is because the free
electrons take in heat energy,
which makes them move faster.
They quickly transfer heat
through the metal structure.
4 They are good conductors of
electricity. This because the free
electrons can move through the
lattice carrying charge ,when a
voltage is applied across the
metal.
5 They are sonorous. This means they
produce sound when struck. This is because
the metal ions vibrate when struck.
6 They are lustrous. This means they can
produce a shiny appearance This is because
the electrons on the surface can reflect light.
7 They have high densities
8 They are solids at room temperature,
except Mercury which is a liquid.
 EXERCISE
QUESTION 1
 

Uranium- 235 and uranium- 238

are isotopes of uranium. The
table below shows the number
of the particles in one atom of
uranium- 235.
 CONT.
PARTICLE NUMBER
Electron 92
Neutron 143
proton 92

Suggest a reason as why this is known as

uranium-235. 
In this table below, give the numbers of particles
found in an atom of uranium-238
 Cont.

particle number
Electron
Neutron
proton

Uranium -235 is radioactive. It is used in the

manufacture of nuclear weapons. Give one other
use of uranium -235
 Cont.
QUESTION 2
 
Fluorine can form either covalent or ionic bonds.
 
Draw a dot-and-cross diagram to show the bonding in
 
Sodium fluoride,NaF
Fluorine, F2
 
Your diagrams must show all the electrons.
Explain why sodium fluoride has a higher melting point
than fluorine
 Cont.
QUESTION 3 
The incomplete diagram below represents the
arrangement of the ions in crystals of either
sodium chloride or magnesium oxide.
 Cont.

Complete the diagram by adding the

missing ions
How does this crystal structure explain
the fact that neither sodium chloride
nor magnesium oxide conduct an
electric current when in the solid state?
• What feature in the ions in the two
compounds explain why the melting
point of magnesium oxide, 28000C, is
much higher than that of sodium
chloride, 800C?
 
• Give a commercial use of magnesium
oxide which depends on the high value
for its melting point
 QUESTION 4
 
How many electrons, protons and neutrons are present in one atom of
the chlorine isotope
37
Cl
17
 
QUESTION 5
 
Silicon and carbon are both in Group IV of the Periodic Table.
 
Draw a diagram of an atom of silicon, showing how the electrons are
arranged and the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
 Cont.
Carbon and silicon each form dioxides in which the
bonding between the atoms is covalent. Carbon
dioxide has a molecular structure whereas silicon
(IV) oxide(silicon dioxide) has a macromolecular
structure.
 
Draw a ‘dot- and- cross’ diagram to show bonding in
a molecule of carbon dioxide.
The structure of silicon (IV) oxide is drawn below.
Silicon dioxide has a high melting point
whereas carbon dioxide is a gas. Explain this in
terms of the two oxides.
Does silicon (IV) oxide conduct electricity?
Explain your answer with reference to its
structure.
Silicon (IV) oxide is an important raw material.
Give (i) one source of silicon dioxide
One use of silicon (IV) oxide
 QUESTION 6 
The ‘dot- and- cross’ diagram shows all the electrons
in a molecule.
 Name this molecule
a) What type of bond is present in this molecule?
b) Show in a similar manner a molecule of ammonia, NH3
c) Ammonia and carbon dioxide react to form water and a
solid, urea, CON2H4.
In this reaction, 72dm3 of carbon dioxide at r.t.p. are converted
to urea.
 
i) Write the equation, including the state symbols, for the
formation of urea.
ii) Calculate the volume at r.t.p. which reacted
iii) Calculate the mass of urea formed
 Cont.

Diamond and graphite are allotropes of

carbon. They are both composed of
macromolecules.
 Cont.

 
Explain the meaning of the following terms.
Allotrope
Macromolecule

Graphite is used to make lubricants for engines.

Explain, in terms of its structure, why graphite
can act as a lubricant.

Give one use of diamond which depends on its

hardness
 Cont.

a) The structures of two ionic lattices are shown

below.
 Cont.
i) Explain why these two solids do not conduct electricity.
ii) Explain why magnesium oxide has a very high melting point.
iii) Suggest why the melting point of magnesium oxide is much higher
than that of sodium chloride
iv) Draw the electronic structure of a magnesium ion and an oxide
ion.
 
b) Sodium is stored under oil because it rapidly oxidizes to form
sodium oxide, Na2O.
 
Draw a dot-and-cross diagram to show the bonding in sodium oxide,
Na2O. You should only the outer shell electrons.