Unit 5

DIGITAL IMAGE
PROCESSING
DIGITAL IMAGE
PROCESSING
Chapter 11 - Representation and

Description
Road map of chapter 11
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
11.1- Representation
11.2- Boundary Descriptors
11.3- Regional Descriptors
Use of Principal
Regional Components
Descriptors
Representation
Boundary
Relational Descriptors
Descriptors 11.4- Use of Principal Components for Description
for Description 11.5 - Relational Descriptors
11.1 Representation
Representation
11.1- Representation Chain Codes

11,3- Regional Descriptors
Polygonal Approximations
11.4- Use of Principal
Components for Description
11.5 - Relational Descriptors Signatures
Boundary Segments
Skeletons
Chain Codes
• Chain codes are used to represent a boundary by a

connected sequence of straight-line segments of specified
length and direction.
11,3- Regional Descriptors • a chain code can be generated by following a boundary (in
a clockwise direction) and assigning a direction to the
Components for Description segments connecting every pair of pixels.
11.5 - Relational Descriptors
• This method generally is unacceptable for two principal

reasons:
 The resulting chain tends to be quite long
 any small disturbances along the boundary due to noise or
imperfect segmentation cause changes in the code that may
not be related to the principal shape features of the
boundary.
Chain Codes

Chain Codes

• The chain code of a boundary depends on the starting point.It can
be normalized with respect to the starting point.
• We simply treat the chain code as a circular sequence of direction
numbers and redefine the starting point so that the resulting
sequence of numbers forms an integer of minimum magnitude.
We can normalize also for rotation (in angles that are integer
multiples of the directions in Fig. 11.3) by using the firs
difference of the chain code instead of the code itself.
Chain Codes
Normalization For Rotation
This difference is obtained by counting the number of direction

changes that separate two adjacent elements of the code.
11.1- Representation Example

11.2- Boundary Descriptors Chain code is 10103322
Normalized with first difference 3133030
11.4- Use of Principal If we treat the code as a circular sequence to normalize with
respect to the starting point,the result is 33133030.
Chain Codes

Chain Codes
• The 8-directional Freeman chain code :

11.2- Boundary Descriptors 00006066666666444444242222202202
11,3- Regional Descriptors • The integer of minimum magnitude of the code:
11.4- Use of Principal 00006066666666444444242222202202
Components for Description • The first difference of either code is
00062600000006000006260000620626

• Using any of these codes to represent the boundary results in a
significant reduction in the amount of data needed to store the
boundary. In addition, keep in mind that the subsampled
boundary can be recovered from any of the preceding codes.
Representation

Boundary Segments
Skeletons
• A digital boundary can be approximated with arbitrary

accuracy by a polygon.
11.1- Representation • Polygonal approximations: to represent a boundary by

11,3- Regional Descriptors straight line segments, and a closed path becomes a
polygon.
• to be exact,we should have:
Number of segments of polygon=number of points in
boundary

• The size of the cells determines the accuracy of the

11.1- Representation polygonal approximation.
• if the size of each (square) cell corresponds to a pixel in
11.4- Use of Principal the boundary, error in each cell between the boundary
11.5 - Relational Descriptors and the MPP approximation at most would be , where d
is the minimum possible distance between pixels.
• The objective is to use the largest possible cell size

acceptable in a given application
producing MPPs with the fewest number of vertices
Concave vertex Convex

vertex


1. The MPP bounded by a simply connected cellular complex
Components for Description is not self intersecting.
2. Every convex vertex of the MPP is a W vertex, but not
every W vertex of a boundary is a vertex of the MPP
3. Every mirrored concave vertex of the MPP is a B vertex,
but not every B vertex of a boundary is a vertex of the MPP
4. All B vertices are on or outside the MPR and all W vertices
are on or in side the MPP
5. The uppermost, leftmost vertex in a sequence of vertices
contained in a cellular complex is always a W vertex of the
MPP
• orientation of triplets of points:

the triplet of points, (a, b, c)
a = (x1, y1), b = (x2,y2), and c = (x3,y3)

Algorithm:
• form a list whose rows are the coordinates of each

vertex and an additional element denoting whether the
11,3- Regional Descriptors vertex is W or B.
Components for Description • V0 the first vertex be the uppermost leftmost
• assume that vertices are arranged in the
counterclockwise direction.
• WC crawls along convex (W) vertices
• Bc crawls along mirrored concave (B) vertices
• VL last MPP vertex found
• Vk  current vertex being examined.
• SetWC = BC = V0
(a) Vk lies to the positive side of the line through pair (VL, WC);
that is, sgn(VL, WC, Vk) > 0.
11,3- Regional Descriptors the next MPP vertex is WC, and we let VL = WC; then we
reinitialize the algorithm by setting WC = BC = VL, and continue
Components for Description with the next vertex left
(b) Vk lies on the negative side of the line though pair (VL, WC)
or is collinear with it; that is sgn(VL, WC, Vk) 0. At the same
time, VK lies to the positive
side of the line through (VL, BC) or is collinear with it; that is,
sgn(VL,BC, Vk) = 0.
VL becomes a candidate MPP vertex. In this case, we set W C = Vk

if Vk is convex (i.e., it is a W vertex); otherwise we set BC = Vk.
(c) Vk lies on the negative side of the line though pair (V L,

Bc): that is, sgn(VL, BC, VK) < 0.
the next MPP vertex is BC and we let VL = BC; then we
Components for Description reinitialize the algorithm by setting W C = BC = VL and
continue with the next vertex after VL
• Algorithm terminates when it reaches the first vertex

again, and thus has processed all the vertices in the
polygon. The VL vertices found by the algorithm are
the vertices of the MPP
Example

• letting WC = BC = V0 = VL = (1.4).
The next vertex is V1 = (2, 3).
sgn(VL, WC, V1) = 0 and sgn(VL, BC, V1) = 0
condition (b) holds.
We let BC = V1 = (2, 3) and WC is at (1, 4),

VL is still at (1,4) because no new MPP-vertex was found.
• Next, we look at V2 = (3, 3).

11.1- Representation sgn(VL, WC, V2) = 0, and sgn(VL, BC, V2) = 1
condition (b) of the algorithm holds again.
11.5 - Relational Descriptors Because V2 is a W (convex) vertex , we let WC = V2 = (3, 3).
At this stage, the crawlers are at WC = (3,3) and BC = (2,3);
VL remains un- changed.
• If we we examine V5 = (7,1) ,we’ll have:

sgn(VL, WC, V5) = 9
so condition (a) holds
set VL = WC = (4, 1). Because a new MPP
vertex was found, we reinitialize the algorithm
by setting WC = BC = VL and start again with
the next vertex being the vertex after the newly
found VL. The next vertex is V5, so we visit it
again.
Continuing as above with this and the remaining

11.2- Boundary Descriptors vertices yields the MPP vertices in Fig below.

11.1-
Representation
11.2- Boundary
Descriptors
11,3- Regional
Descriptors
11.4- Use of
Principal
Components for
Description
11.5 - Relational
Descriptors
Representation

Boundary Segments
Skeletons
Signatures
• represents a shape by a one dimensional function derived from shape

boundary point.
• 1-D function is easier to describe than the original 2-D
boundary.

Signatures

Signatures
• Problem: Signatures generated by this approach are
11.2- Boundary Descriptors invariant to translation, but they do depend on rotation.
11.4- Use of Principal • Solution for rotation: We can normalize with respect
to rotation .
find a way to select the same starting point to generate the
signature, regardless of the shape’s orientation.
One way to do so is to select the starting point as the point

farthest from the centroid, assuming that this point is
unique for each shape of interest.
Signatures
• Solution for scaling: We can normalize with respect to
11.2- Boundary Descriptors scaling.

Components for Description Scale all functions so that they always span the same range
of values, e.g., [0, 1].
Advantage: simplicity
disadvantage :depends on only two values the minimum
and maximum.
Representation

Boundary Segments
Skeletons
Boundary Segments
• Decomposition reduces the boundary’s complexity and
11.2- Boundary Descriptors thus simplifies the description process.

Components for Description • In this case, use of the convex hull of the region
enclosed by the boundary is a powerful tool for robust
decomposition of the boundary.
Boundary Segments
• convex hull H of an arbitrary set S is the smallest

convex set containing S.
• The set difference H - S is called the convex deficiency
11.1- Representation D of the set S. The region boundary can be partitioned
11,3- Regional Descriptors by following the contour of S and marking the points at
which a transition is made into or out of a component of
Components for Description the convex deficiency.
Convex deficiency
Boundary Segments

S = dbabcbabdbabcbab
Boundary Segments
• Another use of convex deficiency is to recognize human actions.

Boundary Segments
• Problem: digital boundaries tend to be irregular .

• These effects usually result in convex deficiencies
that have small, meaningless components scattered
randomly through-out the boundary.
11.2- Boundary Descriptors • Solution: smooth a boundary prior to partitioning.
traverse the boundary and replace the coordinates of
11.4- Use of Principal each pixel by the average coordinates of k of its
11.5 - Relational Descriptors neighbors along the boundary.
• works for small irregularities, but it is time-

consuming and difficult to control
• Large values of k  excessive smoothing

• small values of k insufficient in some segments of
the boundary
Boundary Segments
• Better solution: use a polygonal approximation prior to

11.1- Representation finding the convex deficiency of a region. Most digital
11.2- Boundary Descriptors boundaries of interest are simple .Graham and Yao [1983]
give an algorithm for finding the convex hull of such
11.4- Use of Principal polygons.
Representation

Boundary Segments
Skeletons
Skeletons
• Represent structural shape of a plane region reduce it

11.2- Boundary Descriptors to a graph.
11,3- Regional Descriptors • Use skeletonizing algorithm via a thinning
Components for Description • Problem of some skeletonizing algorithms:
the procedure made no provisions for keeping the skeleton
connected.
• The skeleton of a region may be defined via the medial

axis transformation (MAT) proposed by Blum [1967].
Skeletons
medial axis is the locus of centers of maximal disks that fit

within the shape.

Skeletons
• Difference between MAT and skeleton

Skeletons
11.2- Boundary Descriptors • The MAT of a region R with border B:
11,3- Regional Descriptors 1. For each point p in R, find its closest neighbor in B.
Components for Description 2. If p has more than one such neighbor, it is said to
belong to the skeleton of R.
Problem: direct implementation of this definition is

expensive computationally.
Implementation involves calculating the distance from
every interior point to every point on the boundary of a
region.
Skeletons
Solution: thinning algorithms that iteratively delete

boundary points of a region subject to the constraints that
11.2- Boundary Descriptors deletion of these points
11.4- Use of Principal (1) does not remove end points

Components for Description (2) does not break connectivity
(3) does not cause excessive erosion of the region.
Skeletons
Algorithm for thinning binary regions

Step 1 flags a contour point p, for deletion if
the following conditions are satisfied:

• N(p1) is the number of nonzero neighbors

of p1
• T(p1) is the number of 0-1 transitions in the
ordered sequence p2, p3, ,..., p8. p9, p2.
Skeletons
Example
11.2- Boundary Descriptors 0 0 1
11,3- Regional Descriptors 1 p1 0
11.4- Use of Principal 1 0 1
N(p1) = 4 and T(p1) = 3
Skeletons
Step 2 conditions (a) and (b) remain the same, but

11.1- Representation conditions (c) and (d) are changed to

Algorithm:
1.Apply Step 1 to every border pixel in the binary region .
2. if all conditions (a)-(d) are satisfied the point is flagged
for deletion. 3.Delete flagged points (changed to 0).
4.Apply step 2 to the resulting data
Skeletons

11.2 Boundary Descriptors
Boundary Descriptors
11,3- Regional Descriptors Some Simple Descriptors
Components for Description Shape Numbers
Fourier Descriptors
Statistical Moments
Some Simple Descriptors
11.2- Boundary Descriptors • There are several simple geometric measures that can
be useful for describing a boundary.
11.4- Use of Principal • The length of a boundary: the number of pixels
along a boundary gives a rough approximation of its
length.
• Curvature: the rate of change of slope
• To measure a curvature accurately at a point in a
digital boundary is difficult
• The difference between the slops of adjacent
boundary segments is used as a descriptor of
curvature at the point of intersection of segments
Shape Numbers
Fourier Descriptors
Statistical Moments
Shape Numbers
First
difference
• The shape number of a boundary is defined as the first

difference of smallest magnitude.
• The order n of a shape number is defined as the number of
digits in its representation.
Shape Numbers
Shape Numbers
Fourier Descriptors
Statistical Moments
Fourier Descriptors
• This is a way of using the Fourier transform to analyze

the shape of a boundary.
11,3- Regional Descriptors • The x-y coordinates of the boundary are treated as
the real and imaginary parts of a complex number.
Components for Description • Then the list of coordinates is Fourier transformed
11.5 - Relational Descriptors using the DFT (chapter 4).
• The Fourier coefficients are called the Fourier
descriptors.
• The basic shape of the region is determined by the
first several coefficients, which represent lower
frequencies.
• Higher frequency terms provide information on the
fine detail of the boundary.
Fourier Descriptors
Fourier descriptor: view a coordinate (x,y) as a complex number
(x = real part and y = imaginary part) then apply the Fourier
transform to a sequence of boundary points.
Let s(k) be a coordinate
s(k )  x(k )  jy (k )
of a boundary point k :
K 1
Fourier descriptor : 1
a (u ) 
K
 s
k 0
( k ) e  2uk / K
Reconstruction formula
K 1
1
s(k ) 
K
 a
k 0
( u ) e 2uk / K
Boundary
points
1 P 1
Fourier Descriptors  2uk / K

ˆs (k )  a (u ) e
K k 0
Fourier Descriptors

Some properties of Fourier descriptors

Fourier Descriptors
Statistical Moments
Statistical Moments
11.2- Boundary Descriptors • Moments are statistical measures of data.
• They come in integer orders.
11.4- Use of Principal • Order 0 is just the number of points in the data.
11.5 - Relational Descriptors • Order 1 is the sum and is used to find the average.
• Order 2 is related to the variance, and order 3 to the
skew of the data.
• Higher orders can also be used, but don’t have
simple meanings.
Statistical Moments
• Let r be a random variable, and g(ri) be normalized (as

11.1- Representation the probability of value ri occurring), then the moments
11,3- Regional Descriptors are K 1

 n (r )   (ri  m) n g (ri )
Components for Description k 0
K 1
where m   ri g (ri )
i 0
11.3 Regional Descriptors
Regional Descriptors
Components for Description Topological Descriptors
Texture
Moments of Two-Dimensional Functions

Some Simple Descriptors
• Some simple descriptors
• The area of a region: the number of pixels in the
11.4- Use of Principal region
11.5 - Relational Descriptors • The perimeter of a region: the length of its boundary
• The compactness of a region: (perimeter)2/area
• The mean and median of the gray levels
• The minimum and maximum gray-level values
• The number of pixels with values above and below
the mean
Some Simple
Descriptors

Texture

Topological Descriptors
Topological property 1:
11.1- Representation the number of holes (H)

the number of connected
components (C)
11.1- Representation Euler number: the number of connected components
11.2- Boundary Descriptors subtract the number of holes
E=C-H
E=0 E= -1

Components for
Description
11.5 - Relational
Descriptors
Topological
property 4:
the largest
connected
component.
Texture

Texture
• Texture is usually defined as the smoothness or
roughness of a surface.
11.4- Use of Principal • In computer vision, it is the visual appearance of the
Components for Description uniformity or lack of uniformity of brightness and color.
• There are two types of texture: random and regular.
• Random texture cannot be exactly described by
words or equations; it must be described statistically.
The surface of a pile of dirt or rocks of many sizes
would be random.
• Regular texture can be described by words or
equations or repeating pattern primitives. Clothes
are frequently made with regularly repeating
patterns.
• Random texture is analyzed by statistical methods.
• Regular texture is analyzed by structural or spectral
(Fourier) methods.
Texture

Statistical Approaches
• Let z be a random variable denoting gray levels and let p(zi),
i=0,1,…,L-1, be the corresponding histogram, where L is the
number of distinct gray levels.
• The nth moment of z:
L 1 L 1
 n ( z )   ( zi  m) p( zi ) where m   zi p( zi )
n
k 0 i 0
1
• The measure R: R  1
1   2 ( z)
L 1
• The uniformity: U   p 2 ( zi )
i 0
L 1
• The average entropy: e   p ( zi ) log 2 p ( zi )
i 0
Smooth Coarse Regular

• Structural concepts:
• Suppose that we have a rule of the
form S→aS, which indicates that
the symbol S may be rewritten as
aS.
• If a represents a circle [Fig.
11.23(a)] and the meaning of
“circle to the right” is assigned to a
string of the form aaaa… [Fig.
11.23(b)] .
Spectral Approaches

Spectral Approaches
Texture

• For a 2-D continuous function f(x,y), the moment of order (p+q) is defined as
 
m pq    x p y q f ( x, y )dxdy for p, q  1,2,3,...
 
• The central moments are defined as
 
 pq    ( x  x ) p ( y  y ) q f ( x, y )dxdy
 
m10 m01
where x  and y 
m00 m00
• If f(x,y) is a digital image, then
 pq   ( x  x ) p ( y  y ) q f ( x, y )
• The central moments
x of yorder up to 3 are
 00   ( x  x ) 0 ( y  y ) 0 f ( x, y )   f ( x, y )  m00
x y x y
m10
10   ( x  x )1 ( y  y ) 0 f ( x, y )  m10  (m00 )  0
x y m00
m01
 01   ( x  x ) ( y  y ) f ( x, y )  m01 
0 1
(m00 )  0
x y m00
m10m01
11   ( x  x ) ( y  y ) f ( x, y )  m11 
1 1
x y m00
 m11  x m01  m11  ym10
• The central moments of order up to 3 are
 20   ( x  x ) 2 ( y  y ) 0 f ( x, y )  m20  x m10
x y
 02   ( x  x ) 0 ( y  y ) 2 f ( x, y )  m02  ym01
x y
 21   ( x  x ) 2 ( y  y )1 f ( x, y )  m21  2 x m11  ym20  2 x m01

x y
12   ( x  x )1 ( y  y ) 2 f ( x, y )  m12  2 ym11  x m02  2 ym10

x y
30   ( x  x ) 3 ( y  y ) 0 f ( x, y )  m30  3 x m20  2 x 2 m10

x y
03   ( x  x ) 0 ( y  y ) 3 f ( x, y )  m03  3 ym02  2 y 2 m01

x y
• The normalized central moments

are defined as
 pq
 pq  
 00
pq
where   1 for p  q  2,3,....
2
• A seven invariant moments can be derived from the

second and third moments:
1   20   02
2  ( 20   02 ) 2  4112
3  (30  312 ) 2  (3 21   03 ) 2
4  (30  12 ) 2  ( 21   03 ) 2

5  (30  312 )(30  12 ) (30  12 ) 2  3( 21   03 ) 2 

 (3 21   03 )( 21   03 ) 3( 30  12 ) 2  ( 21   03 ) 2 

6  ( 20   02 ) (30  12 ) 2  ( 21   03 ) 2 
 411 (30  12 )( 21   03 )
 2
7  (3 21   03 )(30  12 ) (30  12 )  3( 21   03 ) 2


 (312  30 )( 21   03 ) 3(30  12 ) 2  ( 21   03 ) 2 
This set of moments is invariant to translation,
rotation, and scale change
Table 11.3 Moment invariants for the images in Figs. 11.25(a)-(e).

11.4 Use of Principal
Principal Components for Description
Purpose: to reduce dimensionality of a vector image while

maintaining information as much as possible.
Let x  [ x1 x2 ... xn ]T
1 K
Mean: m x  E{x} 
K
x
k 1
k
1 K
Covariance matrix T
C x  E{(x  m x )( x  m x ) } 
K
 k k x x
x x
k 1
T
 m m T
Let y  A(x  m x )
Where A is created from eigenvectors of Cx as follows
11,3- Regional Descriptors Row 1 contain the 1st eigenvector with the largest
11.4- Use of Principal eigenvalue.
Components for Description Row 2 contain the 2nd eigenvector with the 2nd largest
eigenvalue.
…. 1 0 0 ...
m y  E{y}  0  0  ... 0 
and Cy   1 
C y  ACx A T  ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 ... ... 1 
Then elements of y  A(x  m )
x
are uncorrelated. The
component of y with the largest l is called the principal
component.
11.2- Boundary Descriptors Eigenvector and eigenvalue of Matrix C are defined as
Let C be a matrix of size NxN and e be a vector of size
11.4- Use of Principal Nx1.
If
Ce  e
Where l is a constant
We call e as an eigenvector and l as eigenvalue of C

6 spectral images
from an airborne
Scanner.
Component l
1 3210
2 931.4
3 118.5
4 83.88
5 64.00
6 13.40
Original image After Hotelling transform

11.5 Relational Descriptors







Unit 5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DIGITAL IMAGE

Chapter 11 - Representation and

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

11.1- Representation Chain Codes

• Chain codes are used to represent a boundary by a

• This method generally is unacceptable for two principal

11.4- Use of Principal

11.4- Use of Principal

This difference is obtained by counting the number of direction

11.1- Representation Example

11.4- Use of Principal

• The 8-directional Freeman chain code :

11.1- Representation Chain Codes

• A digital boundary can be approximated with arbitrary

11.1- Representation • Polygonal approximations: to represent a boundary by

11.4- Use of Principal

• The size of the cells determines the accuracy of the

• The objective is to use the largest possible cell size

Concave vertex Convex

11.4- Use of Principal

11.4- Use of Principal

• orientation of triplets of points:

11.4- Use of Principal

• form a list whose rows are the coordinates of each

VL becomes a candidate MPP vertex. In this case, we set W C = Vk

(c) Vk lies on the negative side of the line though pair (V L,

• Algorithm terminates when it reaches the first vertex

11.4- Use of Principal

condition (b) holds.

We let BC = V1 = (2, 3) and WC is at (1, 4),

• Next, we look at V2 = (3, 3).

• If we we examine V5 = (7,1) ,we’ll have:

Continuing as above with this and the remaining

11.4- Use of Principal

11.1- Representation Chain Codes

• represents a shape by a one dimensional function derived from shape

11.4- Use of Principal

11.4- Use of Principal

One way to do so is to select the starting point as the point

11.4- Use of Principal

11.1- Representation Chain Codes

11.4- Use of Principal

• convex hull H of an arbitrary set S is the smallest

11.4- Use of Principal

• Another use of convex deficiency is to recognize human actions.

11.4- Use of Principal

• Problem: digital boundaries tend to be irregular .

• works for small irregularities, but it is time-

• Large values of k  excessive smoothing

• Better solution: use a polygonal approximation prior to

11.1- Representation Chain Codes

• Represent structural shape of a plane region reduce it

• The skeleton of a region may be defined via the medial

medial axis is the locus of centers of maximal disks that fit

11.4- Use of Principal

• Difference between MAT and skeleton

11.4- Use of Principal

Problem: direct implementation of this definition is

Solution: thinning algorithms that iteratively delete

11.4- Use of Principal (1) does not remove end points

Algorithm for thinning binary regions

11.4- Use of Principal