Ch13.

Diversity

Instructor:
• Mohammed Taha O. El Astal

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 13.1 Introduction

AWGN channels Rayleigh Fading

In AWGN, it may that a 10-dB SNR leads to BERs on the order of 10−4.
but in fading channels, we need an SNR on the order of 40 dB in order to
achieve a 10−4 BER, which is clearly unpractical.
 CONT.

deep fading
(very low SNR)

The reason ???

is the fading of the channel;
since the fading cause to have an attenuation being large, and thus of the
instantaneous SNR being low, so the BER be high.
 CONT.

The Solution!!!!
Make sure that the SNR at Rx. has a smaller probability of being low.

=make sure that the signal has a smaller probability to have a large attenuation
 13.1.1 Principle of Diversity

 The principle of diversity is to ensure that the same information reaches the
receiver (RX) on statistically independent channels.

Example: SNR BER-DFSK

If Pnoise is 50 pW. Consider the following two cases : 0dB 0.5
 An AWGN channel with Psig,avg is 1 nW.
 A fading channel where during 90% of the time the ....... …...
received power is 1.11 nW, while for the remainder, it is …… ……
zero. 13dB 10−9
1. Compute BER for the case of AWGN channel. 13.5dB 10−10
2. Compute avg. BER with assuming it is selection diversity
in the following cases:
a. one received antenna.
b. two received antenna.
c. three received antenna
13.1.2 Definition of the Correlation Coefficient

Any correlation between the fading of the channels decreases the

effectiveness of diversity, why??
The most important one is the correlation coefficient of signal envelopes x and
y:

For two statistically independent signals  E{xy} = E{x}E{y}  ρxy=0

Signals are often said to be “effectively” decorrelated if ρ is below a certain
threshold (typically 0.5 or 0.7).
 Diversity

Diversity

Microdiversity Macrodiversity

Microdiversity :The methods that can be used to combat small-scale fading.

Macrodiversity :The methods that can be used to combat shadowing effect.
 13.2 Microdiversity:

Microdiversity :The methods that can be used to combat small-scale

fading.
Five common method to achieve that:
1. Spatial diversity.
2. Temporal diversity.
3. Frequency diversity.
4. Angular diversity.
5. Polarization diversity.
 Correlation coefficient :

The following important equation will come in handy :

This equation can be applied to spatial, temporal, and frequency

diversity.
The following assumption must be hold :
1. Validity of the (WSSUS) model.
2. No existence of (LOS).
3. Exponential shape of the (PDP).
4. Isotropic distribution of incident power.
5. The Use of omnidirectional antennas.
 13.2.1 Spatial Diversity

 It is the oldest and simplest form of diversity.

Also known as antenna diversity
 Its performance is influenced by correlation of the signals
between the antenna elements.
A large correlation between signals at antenna elements is
undesirable, as it decreases the effectiveness of diversity.
 CONT.

An important factor in the designing process is the antenna displacement .

MS in cellular and cordless systems:
oAre spaced approximately λ/4, how??
oGSM8 cm,
ocordless and cellular (1,800MHz) 4 cm.
oWLAN (2.4G, 5.8G)??
BS in cordless systems and WLANs.
oSame as previous.
BSs in cellular systems:
oThe required antenna spacing to obtain sufficient decorrelation increases.
o2–20 wavelengths for angular spreads between 1◦ and 5◦
CONT.
 13.2.2 Temporal Diversity

Since the wireless propagation channel is time variant, signals that are
received at different times are uncorrelated.
For “sufficient” decorrelation, the temporal distance must be at least
1/(2fdmax), where fdmaxis the maximum Doppler frequency.
In a static channel, the channel state is the same at all times so ρ = 1 for
all time intervals, and temporal diversity is useless.
 CONT.
Repetition coding:
Highly bandwidth inefficient.
Spectral efficiency decreases by a
factor that is equal to the number of
repetitions.
Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ):
Its spectral efficiency is better than that
of repetition coding.
But it requires a feedback channel.
Combination of interleaving and coding:
For more details, see Chapter 14.
 13.2.3 Frequency Diversity

For two branch , if f1 < f2 by Bc, then their fading is approximately independent.
For frequency diversity , equation 3.14 become as follow :

Also this equation lead to same result that the frequency diversity required Bc
CONT.
 CONT.

Example 2:
Compute the correlation coefficient of two frequencies with separation
(i) 30 kHz.
(ii) 200 kHz.
(iii) 5MHz.
in the “typical urban” environment, as defined in COST 207 channel
models(σ= 0.977μsec)
 CONT.
Traditional frequency diversity would greatly
decrease spectral efficiency.
original info.
Alternatively, inf. is spread over a large BW,
so that small parts of the inf. are conveyed by
different frequency components. Spreaded Info.
The Rx. can then sum over the different frequencies to recover the original
information.
These methods allow the transmission of information without wasting
bandwidth.
i.e.
oCDMA
oDSSS and FHSS
oOFDM
 13.2.4 Angle Diversity

Angle diversity principle : Since the MPCs are usually come from different
directions, the collocated antennas with different patterns “see” differently
weighted MPCs (so that the MPCs interfere differently for the two antennas).
 Also known as pattern diversity
It is usually used in conjunction with spatial diversity; it enhances the
decorrelation of signals at closely spaced antennas.
 CONT.

different antenna identical antenna

mutual coupling effect

 13.2.5 Polarization Diversity

H and V polarized copies propagate differently in a wireless channel,

why?
The fading of signals with different polarizations is stat. independent,
thus, receiving both polarizations, offers diversity.
 CONT.

The prop. effects lead to depolarization .

w.ch
.
At RX.
At TX.
Thus, receiving both polarizations using a dual-polarized antenna, and
processing the signals separately, offers diversity.
But the average Rx. signal strength in the two diversity branches is not
identical, this lead to decrease the effectiveness this scheme.
Various antenna arrangements have been proposed in order to mitigate
this problem.
 13.3 Macrodiversity

Shadowing

Spatial and Temporal Diversity can be used.

Freq. and Polarization Diversity can not be used. why?
since the shadowing is almost independent of TX. frequency and
polarization, so they are not effective.
 CONT.

Spatial Diversity for large scale fading :

1.Simplest approach / On frequency repeater :

It just retransmit an amplified version of the signal.

 CONT.

Spatial Diversity for large scale fading :

2.Simulcast:

The same signal is transmitted simultaneously from different BSs.

 CONT.

Comparison:
In simulcast , a large amount of signaling info. that has to be carried
on T1/Microwave, but after usage of fiber it is not a problem.
it need synchronization whereas on frequency repeater does not.
It does not introduce delay as on frequency repeater.

delay Synchronization

delay
On frequency repeater Simulcast
 13.4 Combination of Signals :
Methods of exploiting
signals from diversity
branches:

Selection diversity Combining diversity

In selection methods:

Choose the best diversity branch signal and ignore the other , then
process the signal( Demod. + Decoding).
There are many criteria to determine the best signal.
In Combining methods:
Not choose or select but combine all signal copies then decode.
there are different approaches to combine.
 CONT.

since it exploits all signal copies , it will be has better performance

than selection methods, but it will require more complex systems.
It is complex due to :
it require Nr antennas and Nr down conversion chains since most
Rx. process the signal in the baseband.
 Performance parameters
Performance gain

Array Gain Diversity Gain

 The Array gain results from the coherent combining of multiple Rx.
signal. even in the absence of fading, this can lead to an increase in
avg. Rx. SNR.

 It equal : , is defined as the increased in avg. combined SNR

over the avg. branch SNR.

 Maximum array gain is N, for diversity scheme have N branchs.

 Array gain occurs for all diversity combining techniques.

 CONT.

 In particular, for some diversity systems their avg. BER can be

expressed in the form :

 where : C is constant depend on the type of modulation and coding.

is avg SNR per branch.

M is the diversity order.

 The diversity order indicates how the slope of the avg. BER as a
function of avg. SNR changes with diversity.

 Maximum diversity order is N, for diversity scheme have N

branches.
 13.4.1 Selection Diversity
 1. RSSI Driven Diversity:

 in this scheme, the Rx. will choose signal which have a largest int.
power or largest RSSI, then it processed it(demod.+decoding)
 what is RSSI?
 This scheme require:
 Nr of antennas.
 Nr of RSSI sensors.
 single Max switch.
 CONT.
 For an exact performance assessment , it is important to obtain the
SNR distribution of the output of the selector:

Assume that the instantaneous signal amplitude is Rayleigh distributed,

 As the RX selects the branch with the largest SNR, the probability
that the chosen signal lies below the threshold is the product of the
probabilities that the SNR at each branch is below the threshold.
 CONT.
 Example 13.3:
Compute the probability that the output power of a selection
diversity system is 5 dB lower than the mean power of each
branch, when using Nr = 1, 2, 4 antennas.

 Example 13.4:
Consider now the case that Nr = 2, and that the mean powers
in the branches are 1.5γ and 0.5γ , respectively. How does the
result change?

 RSSI driven diversity is suitable for Noise limited systems but not
Interference (co-channel) systems, why?
 13.4.1 Selection Diversity
 2. BER Driven Diversity:

 Firstly, transmit known sequence, then demod. every sequence from

all antennas , then compare them with TX sequence, finally select
the branch for the subsequent reception of data signal.

 Repeat this process at regular time period and update the decision.

 The necessary repetition rate depend on the coherence time Tc

 CONT.
 BER driven diversity drawbacks :
 Rx. requires  Nr of demod & RF. chain complex system.

 send Tx. sequence Nr times  decrease spec. eff.

 Since the duration of the training sequence is finite, the selection

criterion – i.e., bit error probability – cannot be determined exactly.

 If the RX has only one demodulator, then it is not possible to

continuously monitor the selection criterion (i.e., the BER) of all
diversity branches. This is especially critical if the channel changes
quickly.
 13.4.2 Switched Diversity:
 The major drawback of Selection diversity schemes which is the
requirement to monitors all branches continually (this leads to
Complex hardware or low spectral eff.).

 To avoid that’s drawback : Switched Diversity have been proposed.

 Also known as Threshold Div. or Switched and Stay Div.

 Switching only depends on the quality of the active diversity branch;
it does not matter whether the other branch actually provides a better
signal quality or not.
 CONT.

 Switched diversity have a great problems when both branches have

signal quality below the threshold: in that case, the RX just switches
back and forth between the branches.

 This problem can be avoided by introducing a hysteresis or hold

time, so that the new diversity branch is used for a certain amount of
time, independent of the actual signal quality.

 We thus have two parameters to be optimized : switching threshold

and hysteresis time. These parameters have to be selected very
carefully
 why?
 CONT.

 if threshold is too high it becomes probable that the branch the

RX switches to actually offers lower signal quality than the
currently active one.

 if threshold is too low then a diversity branch is used even when

the other antenna might offer better quality

 if holding time is too long then a “bad” diversity branch can be

used for a long time

 if holding time is too short  then the RX spends all the time
switching between two antennas.
 13.4.3 Combining Diversity
Basic Principle :

 Selection and switched Diversity wastes signal energy by

discarding Nr-1 copies of the Rx. signal.
 This drawback can be avoid by using combining diversity which
exploits all available signal copies.
 Each copies is multiplied by a complex weight and then add up.
 Phase correction.
 Amplitude weight.
 MRC

1. Compensate the phases.

2. weight the signal according to their SNR.
This is the optimum way of combining diversity branch if several
assumption are fulfilled.
 CONT.

1. The channel is slow fading

2. The channel is flat fading

3. Only disturbance is AWGN

if they are fulfilled, then

then correct the phases and weight the amplitude through wn , the SNR
of output become as follow :
 CONT.

 By optimization or cauchy-schwartz inequality ,

if the phase are corrected.

 this result lead to have a combined SNR equal to :

 and to have a pdf for the output of combiner as follow :

 and the mean SNZ of the combiner output equal to :

CONT.
 Equal Gain Combining :

If all branches suffer from Rayleigh fading with the same mean SNR γ .

It is quite remarkable that EGC performs worse than MRC by only a
factor π/4 (in terms of mean SNR).
 The performance difference between EGC and MRC becomes
bigger when mean branch SNRs are also different.
13.5 Error Probability in fading channels with diversity reception:

 we will deal with just with error probability of flat fading channel by
classical computation method.

 It can be done through :

 As an example , let us consider the performance of BPSK with Nr

diversity branches with MRC:

For large value of SNR

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