Furnaces and Refractories

Training Session on Energy
Equipment
Furnaces & Refractories
Furnaces and
Thermal Equipment/
Refractories
Presentation from the
“Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia”
www.energyefficiencyasia.org
1
© UNEP 2006
Training Agenda: Steam
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
Type of furnaces and refractory

materials
Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities
2
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
What is a Furnace?
Thermal Equipment/
• Equipment to melt metals

• Casting
• Change shape
• Change properties
• Type of fuel important

• Mostly liquid/gaseous fuel or electricity
• Low efficiencies due to

• High operating temperature
• Emission of hot exhaust gases
3
© UNEP 2006
Chimney:
Burners: raise or
remove
Introduction combustion
maintain chamber
temperature
gases
Furnace Components
Furnace chamber:
Thermal Equipment/
constructed of
insulating materials
Hearth: support or
carry the steel.
Consists of
refractory materials
Charging & discharging doors (The Carbon Trust) 4

for loading & unloading stock © UNEP 2006
Introduction
What are Refractories:

Thermal Equipment/
Materials that
• Withstand high temperatures and sudden
changes
• Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot
gases etc
• Withstand load at service conditions
• Withstand abrasive forces
• Conserve heat
• Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
• Will not contaminate the load
5
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
Refractories
Thermal Equipment/
Refractory lining of a
furnace arc
Refractory walls of a
furnace interior with
burner blocks
(BEE India, 2005)
6
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
Properties of Refractories
Thermal Equipment/
• Melting point
• Temperature at which a ‘test pyramid’ (cone)
fails to support its own weight
• Size
• Affects stability of furnace structure
• Bulk density
• Amount of refractory material within a volume
(kg/m3)
• High bulk density = high volume stability,
heat capacity and resistance
7
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
• Porosity
• Volume of open pores as % of total refractory
volume
• Low porosity = less penetration of molten
material
• Cold crushing strength

• Resistance of refractory to crushing
• Creep at high temperature

• Deformation of refractory material under
stress at given time and temperature
8
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
• Pyrometric cones
• Used in ceramic industries
to test ‘refractoriness’ of
refractory bricks
• Each cone is mix of oxides
that melt at specific
(BEE India, 2004)
temperatures
• Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

• Temperature at which the refractory brick and
the cone bend
• Refractory cannot be used above this temp 9
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
• Volume stability, expansion &

shrinkage
• Permanent changes during refractory service
life
• Occurs at high temperatures
• Reversible thermal expansion

• Phase transformations during heating and
cooling
10
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
• Thermal conductivity
• Depends on composition and silica content
• Increases with rising temperature
• High thermal conductivity:

• Heat transfer through brickwork required
• E.g. recuperators, regenerators
• Low thermal conductivity:

• Heat conservation required (insulating
refractories)
• E.g. heat treatment furnaces
11
© UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/

materials
12
© UNEP 2006
Type of Furnaces and Refractories
Thermal Equipment/
• Type of Furnaces
• Forging furnaces
• Re-rolling mill furnaces
• Continuous reheating furnaces
• Type of Refractories
• Type of Insulating Materials
13
© UNEP 2006
Classification Combustion Furnaces

Thermal Equipment/
Classification method Types and examples

Oil-fired
1. Type of fuel used
Gas-fired
Coal-fired
Intermittent / Batch
2. Mode of charging materials
Periodical
 Forging
 Re-rolling (batch/pusher)
 Pot
Continuous
 Pusher
 Walking beam
 Walking hearth
 Continuous recirculating bogie furnaces
 Rotary hearth furnaces
Radiation (open fire place)
3. Mode of heat transfer
Convection (heated through medium)
Recuperative
4. Mode of waste heat
Regenerative 14
recovery © UNEP 2006
Forging Furnace
• Used to preheat billets/ingots

Thermal Equipment/
• Use open fireplace system with

radiation heat transmission
• Temp 1200-1250 oC
• Operating cycle
• Heat-up time
• Soaking time
• Forging time
• Fuel use: depends on material and

15
number of reheats © UNEP 2006
Re-rolling Mill Furnace – Batch type

Thermal Equipment/
• Box type furnace

• Used for heating up scrap/ingots/billets
• Manual charge / discharge of batches
• Temp 1200 oC
• Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
• Output 10 - 15 tons/day
• Fuel use: 180-280 kg coal/ton material 16
© UNEP 2006
Re-rolling Mill Furnace –

Continuous pusher type

Thermal Equipment/
• Not batch, but continuous charge and

discharge
• Temp 1250 oC
• Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
• Output 20-25 tons/day
• Heat absorption by material is slow,
steady, uniform 17
© UNEP 2006
Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Thermal Equipment/
• Continuous material flow

• Material temp 900 – 1250 oC
• Door size minimal to avoid air
infiltration
• Stock kept together and pushed
• Pusher type furnaces
• Stock on moving hearth or structure

• Walking beam, walking hearth, continuous
recirculating bogie, rotary hearth furnaces 18
© UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
1. Pusher Furnace
• Pushers on ‘skids’ (rails) with water-cooled
support push the stock
• Hearth sloping towards discharge end
• Burners at discharge
end or top and/or
bottom
• Chimney with
recuperator for
waste heat recovery
19
(The Carbon Trust, 1993) © UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
2. Walking Beam Furnace

• Stock placed on stationary ridges
• Walking beams raise the stock and move forwards
• Walking beams lower stock onto stationary ridges
at exit
• Stock is removed
• Walking beams
return to furnace
entrance
20

Thermal Equipment/
3. Walking Hearth Furnace

• Refractory blocks extend through hearth
openings
• Stock rests on fixed refractory blocks
• Stock transported
in small steps
‘walking the hearth’
• Stock removed
at discharge end
21

Thermal Equipment/
4. Continuous Recirculating Bogie

Furnace
• Shape of long and narrow tunnel
• Stock placed on bogie (cart with wheels) with
refractory hearth
• Several bogies
move like train
• Stock removed
at discharge end
• Bogie returned
to entrance 22

Thermal Equipment/
5. Rotary Hearth Furnace

• Walls and roof remain stationary
• Hearth moves in circle on rollers
• Stock placed on hearth
• Heat moves in
opposite direction
of hearth
• Temp 1300oC
23
Classification of Refractories
Thermal Equipment/
Classification method Examples
Chemical composition
ACID, which readily combines with bases Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate
BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesite-

oxides that resist the action of bases chromite, Dolomite
NEUTRAL, which does not combine with Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure Alumina
acids nor bases
Special Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia
End use Blast furnace casting pit
Method of manufacture Dry press process, fused cast, hand

moulded, formed normal, fired or chemically
bonded, unformed (monolithics, plastics,
ramming mass, gunning castable, spraying)
24
© UNEP 2006
Fireclay Refractories
Thermal Equipment/
• Common in industry: materials available and

inexpensive
• Consist of aluminium silicates
• Decreasing melting point (PCE) with increasing
impurity and decreasing AL2O3
High Alumina Refractories

• 45 - 100% alumina
• High alumina % = high refractoriness
• Applications: hearth and shaft of blast furnaces,
ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks 25
© UNEP 2006
Silica Brick
• >93% SiO2 made from quality rocks

Thermal Equipment/
• Iron & steel, glass industry

• Advantages: no softening until fusion point is
reached; high refractoriness; high resistance to
spalling, flux and slag, volume stability
Magnesite
• Chemically basic: >85% magnesium oxide
• Properties depend on silicate bond concentration
• High slag resistance, especially lime and iron 26
© UNEP 2006
Chromite Refractories
Thermal Equipment/
• Chrome-magnesite
• 15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO
• Used for critical parts of high temp furnaces
• Withstand corrosive slags
• High refractories
• Magnesite-chromite
• >60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3
• High temp resistance
• Basic slags in steel melting
• Better spalling resistance 27
© UNEP 2006
Zirconia Refractories
Thermal Equipment/
• Zirconium dioxide ZrO2

• Stabilized with calcium, magnesium, etc.
• High strength, low thermal conductivity, not
reactive, low thermal loss
• Used in glass furnaces, insulating refractory
Oxide Refractories (Alumina)
• Aluminium oxide + alumina impurities
• Chemically stable, strong, insoluble, high
resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere
• Used in heat processing industry, crucible shaping28
© UNEP 2006
Monolithics
Thermal Equipment/
• Single piece casts in equipment shape

• Replacing conventional refractories
• Advantages
• Elimination of joints
• Faster application
• Heat savings
• Better spalling resistance
• Volume stability
• Easy to transport, handle, install
• Reduced downtime for repairs
29
© UNEP 2006
Insulating Materials Classification

Thermal Equipment/
• Material with low heat conductivity:

keeps furnace surface temperature
low
• Classification into five groups
• Insulating bricks
• Insulating castables and concrete
• Ceramic fiber
• Calcium silicate
• Ceramic coatings (high emissivity coatings)
30
© UNEP 2006
Castables and Concretes

Thermal Equipment/
• Consist of
• Insulation materials used for making piece
refractories
• Concretes contain Portland or high-alumina
cement
• Application
• Monolithic linings of furnace sections
• Bases of tunnel kiln cars in ceramics industry
31
© UNEP 2006
Ceramic Fibers
Thermal Equipment/
• Thermal mass insulation materials

• Manufactured by blending alumina
and silica
• Bulk wool to make insulation
products
• Blankets, strips, paper, ropes, wet felt etc
• Produced in two temperature grades
32
© UNEP 2006
Ceramic Fibers
Remarkable properties and benefits

Thermal Equipment/
• Low thermal conductivity • Lightweight furnace

• Light weight • Simple steel fabrication
• Lower heat storage work
• Thermal shock resistant • Low down time
• Chemical resistance • Increased productivity
• Mechanical resilience • Additional capacity
• Low installation costs • Low maintenance costs
• Ease of maintenance • Longer service life
• Ease of handling • High thermal efficiency
• Thermal efficiency • Faster response
33
© UNEP 2006
High Emissivity Coatings

Thermal Equipment/
• Emissivity: ability to absorb and

radiate heat
• Coatings applied to interior furnace
surface:
• emissivity stays constant
• Increase emissivity from 0.3 to 0.8
• Uniform heating and extended refractory life
• Fuel reduction by up to 25-45%
34
© UNEP 2006
High Emissivity Coatings

Thermal Equipment/
35
(BEE India, 2005) © UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/

materials
36
© UNEP 2006
© UNEP 2006
37
Heat in stock
Heat Losses Affecting Furnace
Other losses
Assessment of Furnaces
Furnace surface/skin
FURNACE
Openings in furnace
Hydrogen in fuel
Moisture in fuel
Performance
Flue gas
Heat input
Thermal Equipment/
Instruments to Assess Furnace

Performance
Thermal Equipment/
Parameters Location of Instrument Required

to be measured measurement required Value
Furnace soaking zone Soaking zone and side Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple 1200-1300oC
temperature (reheating wall with indicator and
furnaces) recorder
Flue gas temperature In duct near the discharge Chromel Alummel 700oC max.
end, and entry to Thermocouple with
recuperator indicator
Flue gas temperature After recuperator Hg in steel thermometer 300oC (max)
Furnace hearth pressure Near charging end and Low pressure ring gauge +0.1 mm of Wc
in the heating zone side wall over the hearth
Oxygen in flue gas In duct near the discharge Fuel efficiency monitor for 5% O2
end oxygen and temperature
Billet temperature Portable Infrared pyrometer or - 38

optical pyrometer
© UNEP 2006
Calculating Furnace Performance

Thermal Equipment/
Direct Method
• Thermal efficiency of furnace
= Heat in the stock / Heat in fuel
consumed for heating the stock
• Heat in the stock Q:
Q = m x Cp (t1 – t2)
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal
m = Weight of the stock in kg
Cp= Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg oC
t1 = Final temperature of stock in oC 39
t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace in oC © UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Direct Method - example m = Weight of

the stock = 6000
• Heat in the stock Q = kg

Cp= Mean
specific heat of
• m x Cp (t1 – t2) stock = 0.12
• 6000 kg X 0.12 X (1340 – 40) kCal/kg oC
t1 = Final
• 936000 kCal temperature of
stock = 1340 oC
• Efficiency = t2 = Initial
temperature of
the stock = 40 oC
• (heat input / heat output) x 100 Calorific value of
• [936000 / (368 x 10000) x 100 = 25.43%
oil = 10000
kCal/kg
Fuel consumption
• Heat loss = 100% - 25% = 75% = 368 kg/hr
40
© UNEP 2006

Indirect Method
Thermal Equipment/
Heat losses
a) Flue gas loss = 57.29 %
b) Loss due to moisture in fuel = 1.36 %
c) Loss due to H2 in fuel = 9.13 %
d) Loss due to openings in furnace = 5.56 %
e) Loss through furnace skin = 2.64 %
Total losses = 75.98 %
Furnace efficiency =
• Heat supply minus total heat loss
• 100% – 76% = 24%
41
© UNEP 2006

Typical efficiencies for industrial furnaces

Thermal Equipment/
Furnace type Thermal efficiencies (%)

1) Low Temperature furnaces
a. 540 – 980 oC (Batch type) 20-30
b. 540 – 980 oC (Continous type) 15-25
c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type 5-7
d. Strip Anneal Muffle 7-12
2) High temperature furnaces

a. Pusher, Rotary 7-15
b. Batch forge 5-10
3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman 25-90
b. Tunnel 20-80
4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20 oC –370 oC) 35-40 42
b. Direct fired ovens (20 oC –370 oC) 35-40 © UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/

materials
43
© UNEP 2006
Energy Efficiency Opportunities
1. Complete combustion with minimum excess air

Thermal Equipment/
2. Proper heat distribution

3. Operation at the optimum furnace temperature
4. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5. Maintaining correct amount of furnace draft
6. Optimum capacity utilization
7. Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8. Minimize furnace skin losses
9. Use of ceramic coatings
10.Selecting the right refractories
44
© UNEP 2006
1. Complete Combustion with

Minimum Excess Air

Thermal Equipment/
• Importance of excess air

• Too much: reduced flame temp, furnace
temp, heating rate
• Too little: unburnt in flue gases, scale losses
• Indication of excess air: actual air /
theoretical combustion air
• Optimizing excess air
• Control air infiltration
• Maintain pressure of combustion air
• Ensure high fuel quality
45
• Monitor excess air © UNEP 2006
2. Proper Heat Distribution

Thermal Equipment/
When using burners

• Flame should not touch or be obstructed
• No intersecting flames from different burners
• Burner in small furnace should face upwards
but not hit roof
• More burners with less capacity (not one big
burner) in large furnaces
• Burner with long flame to improve uniform
heating in small furnace
46
© UNEP 2006
3. Operate at Optimum Furnace

Temperature
Thermal Equipment/
• Operating at too high temperature: heat loss,

oxidation, decarbonization, refractory stress
• Automatic controls eliminate human error
Slab Reheating furnaces 1200oC

Rolling Mill furnaces 1200oC
Bar furnace for Sheet Mill 800oC
Bogie type annealing furnaces 650oC –750oC
47
© UNEP 2006
4. Reduce Heat Loss from Furnace

Openings
Thermal Equipment/
• Heat loss through openings

• Direct radiation through openings
• Combustion gases leaking through the openings
• Biggest loss: air infiltration into the furnace
• Energy saving measures

• Keep opening small
• Seal openings
• Open furnace doors less frequent and shorter
48
© UNEP 2006
5. Correct Amount of Furnace Draft

Thermal Equipment/
• Negative pressure in furnace: air

infiltration
• Maintain slight positive pressure
• Not too high pressure difference: air
ex-filtration
Heat loss only about 1% if furnace

pressure is controlled properly! 49
© UNEP 2006
6. Optimum Capacity Utilization

• Optimum load
Thermal Equipment/
• Underloading: lower efficiency

• Overloading: load not heated to right temp
• Optimum load arrangement
• Load receives maximum radiation
• Hot gases are efficiently circulated
• Stock not placed in burner path, blocking flue
system, close to openings
• Optimum residence time
• Coordination between personnel
50
• Planning at design and installation stage © UNEP 2006
7. Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases

• Charge/Load pre-heating
Thermal Equipment/
• Reduced fuel needed to heat them in furnace
• Pre-heating of combustion air

• Applied to compact industrial furnaces
• Equipment used: recuperator, self-
recuperative burner
• Up to 30% energy savings
• Heat source for other processes

• Install waste heat boiler to produce steam
• Heating in other equipment (with care!) 51
© UNEP 2006
© UNEP 2006
8. Minimum Furnace Skin Loss

Thermal Equipment/
• Choosing appropriate refractories

• Increasing wall thickness
• Installing insulation bricks (= lower
conductivity)
• Planning furnace operating times
• 24 hrs in 3 days: 100% heat in refractories
lost
• 8 hrs/day for 3 days: 55% heat lost
52
© UNEP 2006
9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

Thermal Equipment/
• High emissivity coatings

• Long life at temp up to 1350 oC
• Most important benefits
• Rapid efficient heat transfer
• Uniform heating and extended refractory life
• Emissivity stays constant
• Energy savings: 8 – 20%

53
© UNEP 2006
10. Selecting the Right Refractory

Thermal Equipment/
Selection criteria
• Type of furnace • Structural load of
furnace
• Type of metal charge
• Stress due to temp
• Presence of slag gradient & fluctuations
• Area of application • Chemical compatibility
• Working temperatures • Heat transfer & fuel
• Extent of abrasion conservation
and impact • Costs
54
© UNEP 2006
Training Session on Energy
Equipment

Furnaces and
Thermal Equipment/
Refractories
THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
55
© UNEP 2006
Disclaimers and References
• This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of

the project “Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from

Thermal Equipment/
Industry in Asia and the Pacific” (GERIAP). While

reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the
contents of this publication are factually correct and
properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility
for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall
not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned
directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the
contents of this publication. © UNEP, 2006.
• The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
• Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is
available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org 56
© UNEP 2006

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Training Session on Energy

Type of furnaces and refractory

• Equipment to melt metals

• Type of fuel important

• Low efficiencies due to

Charging & discharging doors (The Carbon Trust) 4

What are Refractories:

• Cold crushing strength

• Creep at high temperature

• Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

• Volume stability, expansion &

• Reversible thermal expansion

• High thermal conductivity:

• Low thermal conductivity:

Type of furnaces and refractory

Classification Combustion Furnaces

Classification method Types and examples

• Used to preheat billets/ingots

• Use open fireplace system with

• Fuel use: depends on material and

Re-rolling Mill Furnace – Batch type

• Box type furnace

Re-rolling Mill Furnace –

Continuous pusher type

• Not batch, but continuous charge and

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

• Continuous material flow

• Stock on moving hearth or structure

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

2. Walking Beam Furnace

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

3. Walking Hearth Furnace

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

4. Continuous Recirculating Bogie

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

5. Rotary Hearth Furnace

Classification method Examples

BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesite-

End use Blast furnace casting pit

Method of manufacture Dry press process, fused cast, hand

• Common in industry: materials available and

High Alumina Refractories

• >93% SiO2 made from quality rocks

• Iron & steel, glass industry

• Zirconium dioxide ZrO2

• Single piece casts in equipment shape

Insulating Materials Classification

• Material with low heat conductivity:

Castables and Concretes

• Thermal mass insulation materials

• Produced in two temperature grades

Remarkable properties and benefits

• Low thermal conductivity • Lightweight furnace

High Emissivity Coatings

• Emissivity: ability to absorb and

High Emissivity Coatings

Type of furnaces and refractory

Instruments to Assess Furnace

Parameters Location of Instrument Required

Flue gas temperature After recuperator Hg in steel thermometer 300oC (max)

Billet temperature Portable Infrared pyrometer or - 38

Calculating Furnace Performance

Calculating Furnace Performance