MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

Course code: 15ME1142

Unit 2 : Flow Measurements

 Flow Measurement
• Rate Meters (Obstruction meters)
 Constant area-Variable head meters: Venturimeter, Flow nozzle, Orifice plate, Pitot tubes
 Constant head-variable area meters: Rotameter, Cylinder and piston arrangement
 Variable head-variable area meters: Weirs and Flumes
 Variable velocity meters: Current meters and anemometer
 Variable force meters: Vanes

• Quantity meters
 Weight meters: Weighers and Traps
 Volumetric meters: Tank, Rotating impeller, Nutating disk

• Special methods
 Magnetic flow meter
 Ultrasonic flow meter
 Travel time difference method
 Oscillating loop system
 Turbine meter
 Hot wire anemometer
 Constant current method
 Constant temperature method
 Flow Measurement
Rotameter
Description
• A tapered transparent glass tube graduated to read flow rate
• A float whose density is greater than fluid
• Float diameter should block the inlet of the tube
Operation
• The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured touched the bottom portion of float
• The float starts to rise
(Pressure of fluid + Fluid Buoyancy) > Downward pressure due to float weight
• An annular space is created between the periphery of float and inner wall of tube
• Fluid passes through this annular concentric space
• The annular space keeps increasing until
(Pressure of fluid + Fluid Buoyancy) = Downward pressure due to float weight
• The float stops rising further and stops at a particular position
• The increase in flow makes the float rise and vice-versa
• The position of the float becomes indication of flow rate
• The tapered glass has to be calibrated suitably
 Flow Measurement

Rotameter
Applications
• Can be used to measure flow rates of corrosive fuids
• Particularly used to measure low flow rates

Advantages
1. Flow conditions are visible
2. Flow rate is linear function
3. Can be used to measure flow rates of liquids, gases and vapours
4. The capacity of the rotameter can be changed by changing the float and tube

Limitations
5. They should be installed vertically
6. They cannot be used for measurement in moving objects
7. The float will not be visible when coloured fluid is used
8. For high pressure and temperature fluid flow measurements, they are expensive
9. They cannot be used for fluids containing high percentage of solids in suspension
 Flow Measurement
Magnetic Flow Meter
Principle
• When a flowing conducting fluid is subjected to transverse magnetic field, the
flowing fluid cuts the magnetic field
• This causes a voltage to be induced
• This induced voltage is proportional to the fluid velocity

Description
• A conducting fluid flowing through a non-magnetic and non-conducting pipe
• Two electrodes attached in opposite sides of the pipe
• These electrodes come in contact with the flowing fluid
• The pipe is surrounded by an electromagnet which produces a magnetic field
Operation
• When the conducting fluid flows through the pipe which is subjected to a
magnetic field, the conducting fluid cuts the magnetic field. As a result, voltage
is induced
• As the magnetic field is constant, the voltage obtained across the electrodes will
be directly proportional to the average fluid velocity and diameter of the pipe.
Hence, the voltage induced becomes a measure of the volume flow rate
 Flow Measurement

Magnetic Flow Meter

Applications
• Can be used to measure flow rates of conducting fluids
• Used to measure flow rates of slurries, corrosive and abrasive fluids
• Used to measure bi-directional flows by reversing connections

Advantages
1. They do not cause obstruction to flow and hence cause no pressure drop
2. For measurement, it does not matter if the flow is laminar or turbulent
3. It gives accurate results
4. Its reliability is high, it gives a standard performance for an elongated period of time
5. It can handle greasy materials and fluids containing suspended solids
6. The measurement is independent of viscosity, density, temperature and pressure

Limitations
7. The fluid should satisfy certain conduction conditions
8. The fluid should be full in the pipe to get accurate results
9. Air and gas bubbles in the fluids cause errors
10. When certain fluids are used, electrodes might get coated with scales and this will affect the output signal
11. The voltage output is low and needs amplification
 Flow Measurement
Turbine Flow Meter / Turbine Type Anemometer
Principle
• When a rotor is attached to a permanent magnet and if the
rotor is made to rotate due to the fluid velocity V, the
rotating magnetic field will be cut by the pick-up coil
resulting in generation of voltage pulses
• The frequency of voltage pulses is proportional to flow rate
• The measure of the frequency of voltage pulses becomes a
measure of flow rate.
• It is used for volumetric total flow measurement

Description
• A turbine wheel (rotor)
• A permanent magnet polarized at 900 to the axis of rotation
which is attached to one of the blades of the rotor
• A pick-up coil placed external to the meter housing
• A frequency meter attached to the pick-up coil
 Flow Measurement
Turbine Flow Meter
Operation
• The turbine meter is fixed to the pipe carrying the fluid whose volume
flow rate is to be measured
• The fluid strikes the blades of the rotor and makes it to rotate
• The rotation of the rotor is proportional to the applied force of the fluid
• The rotor will rotate when fluid strikes and stops when there is no flow.
• When the rotor rotates, the permanent magnet attached to the rotor also
rotates. This produced a magnetic field.
• Each time the magnet passes the pick-up coil, the magnetic field gets
cut, resulting in generation of a voltage pulse
• The frequency of the voltage pulses is indicated by a frequency meter.
• The frequency of the voltage pulses becomes a measure of flow rate
when calibrated.
• The number of pulses generated per liter of fluid flow is called the ‘K’
factor

where, K = Pulses per volume unit

τk = Time constant in minutes
Q = Volumetric flow rate (liters per minute)
 Flow Measurement
Turbine Flow Meter
Applications
• They are extensively used in weather stations to measure wind
velocity
• They are used to measure water flow in rivers and streams
• Compact models are used to measure flow in tubes and pipes

Advantages
1. Recording and controlling can be done from distance
(Telemetry)
2. High accuracy (Error is ±0.5%)
3. Has good dynamic response
4. The pressure drop in the fluid is low
5. It is easy to install and maintain

Limitations
6. Error increases if the flow rate is low
7. Bearing friction and wear may alter the linear output of the
instrument
8. For a distance, a straight run of pipe ahead of the instrument is
required.
 Flow Measurement
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
Principle
• The velocity of propagation of sound waves in a fluid is affected by the velocity of the fluid flow
• The transmitter ‘T’ placed upstream is energized by an electronic oscillator to emit ultrasonic waves
• A receiver ‘R’ placed downstream receives the ultrasonic waves emitted by transmitter
• The time taken by the waves to travel from ‘T’ to ‘R’ becomes a measure of flow when calibrated
• The time taken by the ultrasonic waves / vibrations to travel from ‘T’ to ‘R’,
where, x = Distance between the transmitter and receiver
VS = Velocity of sound in the fluid
VF = Flow velocity in pipe
tZ = Time taken by the ultrasonic waves to travel from ‘T’ to ‘R’
under zero flow conditions
• The measurement of time ‘t’ and ‘tZ’ are not done simultaneously as the conditions of fluid during flow and stagnation are
different
• The velocity of sound in fluid is affected by temperature and pressure
1. Ultrasonic flow meter using travel time difference method
2. Ultrasonic flow meter using the oscillating loop system
 Flow Measurement
Ultrasonic Flow Meter Time Travel Difference Method

• In this method, one transmitter is placed at upstream which emits ultrasonic sound waves which are received by a receiver
at downstream
• Another transmitter is placed at downstream which emits ultrasonic sound waves which are received by a receiver at the
upstream

Let, the time taken by the ultrasonic waves to travel downstream = tD

the time taken by the ultrasonic waves to travel upstream = tU

Therefore,

The travel time difference, t = tU-td

 Flow Measurement
Ultrasonic Flow Meter Oscillating Loop System

• This method is based on frequency

• Transmitters and receivers are placed to emit and receive pulses
• There are two self excited oscillating systems
• The pulse is received by the receiver which is amplified and fed
back to the transmitter
• This results in generation of a train of pulses
• The pulse repetition frequency is given by

• Therefore, the frequency difference is

• This frequency difference becomes a measure of fluid flow rate

when calibrated.
 Flow Measurement
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
Applications
• Used to measure flow of liquids and gases through which sound can
be transmitted
• Used to measure rapidly varying flows
• Used to measure bi-directional flows
• Used in situations where the measurement should be insensitive to
variations in viscosity, density and temperature

Advantages
1. It causes negligible obstruction to flow
2. Accuracy is high
3. The instrument’s output has linear relation with fluid velocity
4. There are no moving parts in this arrangement
5. They have excellent dynamic response

Limitations
6. The arrangement is complex
7. High cost of the instrument
8. The travel time difference and frequency difference is very small
 Flow Measurement
Hot Wire Anemometer (Thermal Method)
Principle
• When a electrically heated wire is placed in a flowing gas
stream, heat is transferred from the wire to the gas
• The temperature of the wire is reduced
• The resistance of the wire also changes
• This change in resistance of the wire becomes a measure
of flow rate.

Description
• Conducting wires placed in a ceramic body
• Leads are taken from the conducting wires
• They are connected to one of the limbs of the Wheatstone
bridge circuit to enable measurement of change in
resistance of the wire

Measurement of flow rate using an anemometer-bridge

combination is done in two ways:
1. Constant current method
2. Constant temperature method
 Flow Measurement
Hot Wire Anemometer Constant Current Method

Operation
• The anemometer is kept in the flowing gas stream to
measure flow rate
• A constant current is passed though the sensing wire. That
is, the voltage across the bridge circuit is kept constant
• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the
sensing wire to the flowing gas
• The temperature of the sensing wire reduces
• This causes a change in the resistance of the sensing wire
• The change in resistance of the sensing wire becomes a
measure of flow rate
• The galvanometer, which was initially at zero position,
deflects
• This deflection of the galvanometer becomes a measure of
flow rate of the gas when calibrated
 Flow Measurement
Hot Wire Anemometer Constant Temperature Method

Operation
• The anemometer is kept in the flowing gas stream to measure
flow rate
• A current is initially passed though the sensing wire.
• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing
wire to the flowing gas
• The temperature of the sensing wire reduces
• This causes a change in the resistance of the sensing wire
• Here, the temperature and the resistance is to be maintained at
constant level
• The current flowing through the sensing wire is increased to
bring back the sensing wire to have its initial resistance and
temperature
• The electric current required to bring back the resistance and
hence the temperature of the wire to its initial condition
becomes a measure of flow rate of the gas when calibrated