Qualitative

Reseach
Methods
Types of Research Designs

Uses Methods

 Formulate problems more precisely  Secondary research

Exploratory  Develop hypotheses  Expert interviews
  Qualitative research:
Research 
Establish priorities for research
Eliminate impractical ideas focus groups, depth
(no previous knowledge)
 Clarify concepts interviews etc.

Descriptive  Describe segment characteristics

 Estimate proportion of people who
 Measurement with
standardized methods
Research behave in a certain way
(classic surveys)
(previous knowledge)  Make specific predictions

Causal  Experiments
 Confirm cause and effect relationships
Research  Formulate and test hypotheses
 Non-experimental
(theoretical causal research
knowledge)
Characteristics of Qualitative Research

 ... what people think and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they
think and how they say they feel ...  
(Bellenger/Bernhardt/Goldstucker, 1976)

Qualitative research is usually exploratory or diagnostic in nature

(Sampson, 1978)

Qualitative research (...) is designed to understand the nature of a business

situation (Wallace, 1984)

Qualitative research answers such questions as ‘What’, ‘Why’ or ‘How’ but it

cannot answer the question ‘How many?’
(Gordon/Langmaid, 1988)

The actual research goal of qualitative market research consists in identifying,

describing and understanding psychological and sociological relationships but
not in measuring and quantifying them
(Kepper, 1994, S. 17)
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Research Purpose Test a theory Develop a theory
Data-based testing of Data collection, data
hypotheses (determined analysis and theory
by previously developed development as one
theoretical approaches) whole process

Research Topic Deduction Induction

Research Design Multiple cases, control Single case, field

groups, experiments, research, content
random sample, representativeness
statistical
representativeness

Methods Hard’ methods ‘Soft’ methods

Empirical & standardized, Not or half standardized,
strict experimental interpretation, process
conditions, strict orientation, open &
procedures, closed flexible
Application of Qualitative Research

• …qualitative research should not be used as a low-cost dipstick which is an alternative

to quantitative research (Hague et al. 2016, p. 47).
• …to learn about personally sensitive issues such as drug use, contraception,
corporate performance.
• …to investigate topics that are difficult to articulate – participants may be unable to
respond to questions that tap their subconscious (e.g. emotional drives, motivations,
values).
• …to understand complex phenomena – the nature of what respondents are expected
to describe are difficult to capture in a simple questionnaire.
• …to formulate hypotheses – to learn something about a relatively new topic of
interest e.g. motivations to join customer communities and formulate hypotheses for
quantitative testing.
• …to help interpret findings from quantitative research – large scale surveys often do
not provide underlying reasons for their findings.
• …to deliver a holistic picture – qualitative research techniques provide a more
complete and comprehensive picture of the whole context in which the phenomenon
of interest occurs.
Appetite for growth

http://portfolio.cpl.co.uk/impact/34/34
Qualitative Research Techniques

Information Attitudes, motives,

acquired by asking
questions outright,
purpose of project
is disclosed to the
respondent
Qualitative Research Techniques
etc. are indirectly
inferred, purpose
not disclosed to the
respondent

Direct Indirect

Personal Group Observation Projective

Interview Interview Techniques Techniques

 Depth Interview  Focus Groups  Ethnographic  Association

 Laddering Research Techniques
Interview  3rd Person
Technique
 Thematic
Apperception Test
Qualitative Research Techniques

Qualitative Research Techniques

Direct Indirect

Personal Group Observation Projective

Interview Interview Techniques Techniques

 Depth Interview
What is a Depth Interview?

“An unstructured, direct personal interview in which a single

respondent is probed by an experienced interviewer to uncover
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes and feelings on a topic.”
Malhotra & Birks (2003), Marketing Research, p.179

Rule of thumb on the number of interviews

to be conducted:

• 10 depth interviews can be enough

• 30 interviews would almost certainly draw out all issues relevant for the research
topic.
What is a Depth Interview?

“Where insights and exploration are required, the interview will be

more loosely structured, with flexibility in the construction of the
questions themselves and the order they are asked”
Hague et al. 2016, p. 82

Tips from Google

To read….
Stages of the interview

Hague et al. 2016, p. 87

Depth Interviews - Pros and Cons

ge and
Be easier to arran
coordinate
can be
The obtained data terpret
and in
ange of difficult to analyze
Result in a free exch ny social
ta
information withou to group
pressure to conform interviews in a
Number of depth
respond too low due
project tends to be interview
e
to the length of th volved
in
ses directly and the high costs
Attribute the respon ent
to the respond etences of
Quality and comp
heavily on
the results depend l (due to
il
the interviewer’s sk sults are
re, re
pth of insight the lack of structu terviewer)
Uncover greater de ups influenced by the
in
than focus gro

Pros Cons
Applications of Depth Interviews

Many marketing decisions can be supported by information

gathered through depth interviews:

Customer satisfaction studies: Often together with a quantitative survey, depth

interviews can be used at the front-end to identify satisfaction issue or at the back end to
explore emergent issues.
Product testing: Individual cases can be tracked through a trial of a new product through
staged depth interviewing.
Needs assessment: A small number of depth interviews can be used to identify current
behaviors and identify unmet needs.
Advertising research: Testing of advertising material can be carried out without
contamination of other respondents’ opinions.
Market structure: Key respondents with a bird’s eye view of the market can be selected
for their expert knowledge.
When to Conduct a Depth Interview?

Respondents are geographically scattered and it is not possible to

convene a group.

Each respondent’s story needs to be followed from beginning to

end (e.g. as in a study of behavior).

The topic area is sensitive, such as personal wealth, drug or alcohol

usage.

Individual behaviors and responses need to be tracked over time

such as in the study of new product behavior.

Contamination from other people’s view should be avoided.

Homework for the next lecture!

https://vimeo.com/7099570
3 - Qualitative Research Techniques

Qualitative Research Methods

Direct Indirect

Personal Group Observation Projective

Interview Interview Techniques Techniques

• Laddering
Interview
3 - Laddering Interview

An interview technique where questioning progresses from

product characteristics to user characteristics.

The psychological forces shaping people’s behavior are

largely unconscious. A person cannot fully understand his or
her own motivations

Laddering can be used to trace a person’s motivations

from the stated instrumental ones to the more terminal
ones.
3 – Means-End-Chain
Values

Consequences
Terminal
Value
(e.g. Self
Instrumental esteem)
Value
Psychosoci
Consequence (e.g. Physical
Product attributes fitness)
Functional
Consequence (e.g. I feel
relaxed after
(e.g. I walk
faster.) walking.)
Abstract
Attribute
Concrete (e.g. Is
Attribute comfortable
on the feet.)
(e.g.
Orthopedic)
3 – Means-End-Analysis
Steps 4 Methods
Determine  Open inquiry
the relevant  Repertory grid
attributes
Steps 3
Determine  Laddering
the individual  Association pattern
’means-end chains‘ technique (APT)
Steps 2
 Content analysis
Data aggregation
Implications matrix
and analysis
 Hierarchical value map
Steps 1

Implications  Product policy

for marketing  Communication policy
3 – Laddering Interview: Example
A: Makes me feel good. To be happy!
Q: Why is this important for you? What is your "benefit" in Value:
this? Feel good
A: I have an obligation to for future generations.
It just is part of my ethics – I feel responsible.
Consequence:
Q: And if you are not greener? What are the consequences Obligation to next
for you then? generation

A: The atmosphere is fouled enough an I should do my bit.

We must all be greener.
Consequence:
Q: Can you explain to me why you care about cutting down
We must be
on pollution? greener

A: Use as little as possible. Cut down on pollution.

Q: You stated that fuel economy is important to you. Why is Consequence:
that? Less pollution

A: Fuel economy is a very important car characteristic for me. Characteristic:

Q: What is the most important car characteristic for you? Fuel
consumption
Coding sheet - example

Values

Consequences

Attributes
Coding sheet - example with answers from an interview

feel good

Values

we must be
greener
Consequences
obligation to
less pollution
next generation

fuel
consumption
Attributes
Analyzing means-end chains data

AC-matrix (attribute - consequence) CV-matrix (consequence - value)

Analyzing means-end chains data – the implication matrix

Example: Choice of a Ski Resort

Attributes Consequences Values

and:

social atmosphere
Relationships

fun & excitement

hill & trail quality
snow conditions
friendly people

resort services
entertainment
close to home

achievement
save money

challenging
ski variety
familiarity

belonging
save time
grooming

crowding

ski more
difficulty
lodging

choice

safety
between 9 15 16 16 17 17 25 30 31 32 41 10 14 26 30 40 41 51 13 17 27 64
ski packages 8 1 1 1 7 2 2
familiarity 9 1 1 1 2 3 1 6
local culture 11 2 7 4
grooming 15 2 6 1 9 4
close to home 16 2 5 4 9 1 6
Attributes

lodging 16 1 3 2 1 6 2 2 1 1 7
friendly people 17 2 1 1 14 4
crowding 17 2 13 1 4 8
difficulty 25 2 3 1 1 3 14 3 8 2 11
resort services 30 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 9 5
entertainment 31 1 2 2 1 1 1 16 6 2 16
snow conditions 32 3 3 1 1 1 1 11 17
hill & trail quality 41 1 2 9 2 1 1 2 1 3 20 12 1 7 5 19
choice 10 2 1 1 6
save time 14 1 9 5
Consequneces

save money 26 2 1 7 4
ski more 30 1 1 2 1 2 15
social atmosphere 40 1 1 1 12 1 15
challenging 41 1 12 16
ski variety 51 1 3 1 9 1 2 4 21 1 7 3 28
Example: a hierarchical value map

Example: Choice of a Ski Resort

BELONGING FUN & EXCITEMENT ACHIEVEMENT SAFETY

ski more choice challenging

social save save ski snow

atmosphere time money variety difficulty conditions

friendly hills resort

people local culture close to home lodging crowding
& trails services
familiarity ski packages grooming
entertainment
Example 1:
Elaborate visualization of a hierarchical value map

Example: Choice of a Ski Resort

Grooming

Friendly people Local culture snow

Entertainment Familiarity
conditions

resort
social services
atmosphere

BELONGING FUN & EXCITEMENT ACHIEVEMENT SAFETY

challenging
ski more choice

difficulty
ski
save time save money
variety

Close to home Lodging Crowding Hills &

Ski packages trails
Example 2:
Elaborate visualization of a hierarchical value map
Taste
(Bitterness, HVA for Drinking Hot Coffee Cup-size
strength) Pleasure

Warming

Caffeine Productivity
Habit
Energising

Related to lunch

Performance Well-being
(comfort)
Warm Happiness
Control weight
(Good mood)
Recap’: Laddering interviews 1 and 2
3 - Qualitative Research Techniques
Qualitative Research Methods

Direct Indirect

Personal Group Observation Projective

Interview Interview Techniques Techniques

• ZMET
Zaltman Methaphor Elication Techniques (ZMET)
Zaltman Methaphor Elication Techniques (ZMET)

ZMET is an alternative market research tool to traditional focus groups. The

process, developed by Gerald Zaltman, a professor at Harvard Business School, uses
visual imagery to evoke how consumers feel about a product. Zaltman argues that
images uncover deeply hidden thoughts about products because they connect more
directly with the inner self than words. The usual focus group, he argues, barrages
consumers with questions and simply takes the responses at their word.

Zaltman has found that one of the most common metaphors that participants
identify is transformation – the idea that a particular product can transform them
into something else. Zaltman’s clients can then emphasize the positive qualities his
participants identify with their product, while minimizing the negative ones, in future
campaigns.

Source:http://www.gdusa.com/lookout/4_02.php [02.04.03]
ZMET – Harvard Business School
ZMET – Procedure

Recruiting of 12 to 30 participants (ZMET requires a relatively small sample to produce

consistent patterns of thought)
About a week prior to their interviews, each participant is asked to gather 8-10 pictures
that reflect their thoughts and feelings about the research topic

Each participant is interviewed individually for two hours

Result: participants arrive for their interviews with the benefit of considerable conscious
and unconscious reflection about the product or issue
Participants are asked to explain their thoughts and feelings about the research topic,
using the pictures as visual cues. Interviewers explore whatever metaphors are elicited
and probe for deeper meanings

Interviewers take participants through a series of exercises designed to reveal the

fundamental feelings and beliefs that drive their actions, using techniques adapted from
psychotherapy, cognitive neuroscience, psychology, and sociology.
An associate trained in digital imagery helps participants to create a single image that
summarizes their thoughts and feelings about the subject
Transcription and data analysis.
Source: analog http://www.gdusa.com/lookout/4_02.php [02.04.03]
ZMET – Example Nestlé Crunch
ZMET – Attitudes of 10 Nestlé Crunch fans

Pictures and Photoshop collages, revealed

Respondents brought in pictures of:
that respondents saw the crunch as:
 old pickup trucks,
 a small indulgence in a busy world,
 children playing on picket-fenced
 a source of quick energy, and
suburban lawns,
 something that just tasted good.
 grandfather clocks,
 snowmen, and
 American flags
The candy bar evoked powerful memories:

Of childhood

Of simpler times

It was less a workday pick-me-up than

a time machine back to childhood.
A very recent application

http://portfolio.cpl.co.uk/impact/34/14
3 - Qualitative Research Techniques

Qualitative Research Methods

Direct Indirect

Personal Group Observation Projective

Interview Interview Techniques Techniques

 Focus Groups
Purpose and Value of Focus Groups

A discussion conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents in

an unstructured and natural manner.

Main purpose: gain insights by creating a forum where respondents feel

sufficiently relaxed to reflect and portray their feelings and behaviors

Main value: discover unexpected findings obtained from a free-flow creative group
discussion

Most important qualitative marketing research

method. Extensively used in:

 New product development
 Advertising development
 Image studies
Hector Lanz – Focus Group
Description of Focus Groups

The moderator encourages free and easy

• Six to ten participants, discussion, hoping that the group
ous
prescreened, usually homogen
dynamics will reveal deep feelings and
thoughts.
with a
• Spend a few hours (1.5 to 6)
a
skilled moderator to discuss
or
product, service, organization,
other marketing entity Researchers must avoid generalizing the
reported feelings of the focus group
• Typically held in pleasant participants to the whole market, because
rmal
surroundings, in a relaxed info the sample size is too small and the
atmosphere sample is not drawn randomly.
ards,
• Use of story boards, mood bo
products and brochures to
stimulate discussions
Description of Focus Groups

When focus groups are used as the sole source of data, the objectives will be exploratory and
diagnostic – what is the problem, how can we solve it, how will the market react?
Focus groups are especially useful for researching new products, testing new concepts or
determining “what would happen if…?” (Hague et al. 2016, p.69).
Focus groups are not always practical … depth interviews are and will remain the most widely
used qualitative research technique (Hague et al. 2016, p.70).

Figure: Attitudes to a University, Hague et al. 2016, p. 78

Number of Focus Groups

Extent to which Different types of

differences participants to be Geographic spread Time and budget
between types of targeted and how of participants available
participants are well they mix
sought

Number of
Focus Groups
Focus Groups - Pros and Cons

PROS CONS

Method efficiency Quality of the results dependent on the quality

One moderator for several respondents of the moderation
Methodical flexibility
Joint application of projective and creative
methods within the focus group
Participant’s motivation
Proud to be chosen, more motivating than a
standard interview
Multi-purpose application
Tests for concepts, products, advertising effects,
etc.
Contact to consumers
Client may have a live view of the consumer (one-
way mirror or video)
Stimulation of creative ideas
Mutual stimulation of the respondents where
one person’s comment triggers responses of
other participants
Popular Misconceptions about Focus Groups

Focus groups are low cost: With careful conceptualization

and planning and especially a thorough data analysis focus
Economical
groups are expensive.

They require professional moderators: Best moderators are

not necessarily the most experienced. The moderator’s
Experts
ability to engage with, listen to and draw out the best of
target participants is crucial.

They must be validated by other research techniques:

Endorsement Focus groups can also be used on their own or even to
validate quantitative research findings.

They reveal how consumers will behave: Essentially, focus

Exposure groups collect attitudinal data about how participants intend
to behave. In general, attitudes are not particularly strong
predictors of behavior.
Online Focus Group