Qualitative Research

DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Dr. Remigio Jay-Ar Z. Butacan || 20 April 2017
LECTURE
OBJECTIVES CRITERIA QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
 Explain the purpose of Qualitative Research and its To understand and To test
Process. interpret social hypotheses, look
Purpose interactions at cause and effect
 Differentiate qualitative research from quantitative
and make
research
predictions
 Discuss the different Qualitative research design
Smaller and not Larger and
Group studied
randomly selected randomly selected
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Study of the whole, Specific variables
Variables
 Any type of research that produces findings not not variables studied
arrived by statistical procedures or other means of Type of data Words, images, Numbers and
quantification. collected objects statistics
 Generally works with written texts and seeks to Qualitative data Quantitative data
such as open based on precise
understand the meaning of experience in a
ended responses, measurements
study sample Form of data
interviews, using structured
 Focuses on eliciting people's stories collected
observations, field and validated data
o Conversations (interviews or focus groups) notes, and collection
o Written texts (journals, prayers, letters) reflections measurements
o Visual forms (drawings, photographs) Identify patterns, Identify statistical
 May involve presenting data collected from single Type of data
features and relationships
person (case study) or group of people. analysis
themes
 Spoken mediums = most common form of collecting Objectivity and Subjectivity is Objectivity is
data in health research subjectivity expected critical
o Interviews Researchers and Researcher and
o Focus groups their biases may their biases are not
 Goal is to recruit participants who have the be known to known to
experience to respond to the questions participant in the participants in the
 Primarily exploratory in nature study and study and
 Understanding underlying reasons, opinions, and Role of
participant participant
motivations. researcher
characteristics characteristics are
 Gain insight into lived experiences and phenomena may be known to deliberately hidden
 Uncover trends in thought and opinions the researcher from the
 Develop hypotheses for potential qualitative research researcher (double
Validity blind study)
 Refers to whether or not final product truly portrays Particular or Generizable
what it claims to portray specialized findings that can
Results
 Narrative data with rich use of metaphor and findings that is less be applied to other
description are likely to yield a trustworthy final model generizable populations
 The use of own categories and theme instead of Exploratory or
Confirmatory or top-
labels given by investigator enhance validity as in bottom-up; the
down; the researcher
Grounded theory researcher generates
Scientific method tests the hypothess
a new hypothesis
 Member checking also enhances validity and theory from the
and theory with the
o Complete and final model is shown to all data collected
data
members to check findings and give View of human Dynamic, situational, Regular and
feedback behavior social and personal predictable
Most common Explore, discover Describe, explain,
Reliability research objecives and contrast and predict
 Refers to extent which results are repeatable Wide angle lens;
Naarrow-angle lens;
 Document research decisions made in research diary Focus
examines the
tests a specific
breadth and depth of
 Another researcher must be able to understand what hypothesis
phenomena
was done and why from reading the diary Study behavior under
Nature of Study behavior in
controlled conditions;
Qualitative vs. Quantitative observation natural environment
isolate causal effects
 QUANTITATIVE: DEDUCTION Multiple realities, Single realty;
Nature of reality
Observation/M Hypothesis
subjective objective
Theory Hypothesis Confirmation
easurement Tsting Narrative report with Statistical report with
contextual correlations,
descriptions and comparisons of
 QUALITATIVE: INDUCTION Final report
direct quotations means and statistical
from research significance of
Observaation Patterns/Themes Hypothesis Theory
participants findings

Exam #3 Trans #6 | Nobleza | Noveda | Olalia | Onglengco 1 of 5

 Qualitative Research
Types of Qualitative Research  Focus of inquiry is what people experience in regard
 Case studies to some phenomenon and how they interpret those
 Ethnography experience
 Phenomenology  Study that attempts to understand people’s
 Grouped theory perceptions, perspectives, and interpretations of a
Case studies particular situation or event
 Can take either a qualitative or quantitative  Objective is the direct investigation and description
approach of phenomena as consciously experienced, without
 Refers to the in-depth analysis of a single or small theories about their causal explanations or their
number of units objective reality
 Aims to offer richness and depth of information by  Seeks to understand how people construct meaning
capturing as many variables as possible to identify  Four Aspects of the Lived Experience (1990, van
how a complex set of circumstances come Manen)
together to produce a particular manifestations o Lived space (spatially)
 Describe a particular case in detail and take lessons o Lived body (corporeality)
from it to develop a theory o Lived time (temporality)
 Particularistic and contextual. o Lived human relations (relationality)
 Its roots are in the philosophical work of Husserl,
Ethnography Heidegger, and Ricoeur
 “portait of a people”  Based on the following assumptions
 Descriptive studies of culture and people. o Meaning and Knowing are social
 Entails extensive fieldwork by the researcher constructions, always incomplete and
 Production of highly detailed accounts of how developing
people in a social setting lead their lives based upon o The investigator is a part of the experience
systematic and long term observation of, and being studied and the investigator’s values
conversation with informants (2004, Payne & play a role in the investigation
Payne). o Bias is inherent in all research and should be
 Answers "what's it like to be this person?" articulated at the beginning
 Goal is to understand a culture, and to present, or o Participants and investigators share
explain, its spoken and unspoken nature to people knowledge and are partners
who are not part of the culture o Meanings may not be shared by everyone
 Sampling  May not be a good choice when you want to be able
o Purposive - samples are based on criteria to generalize
that the investigator establishes are the Sampling
outset, which describe participant
characteristics  Large numbers of participants are not needed
 Design  Goal is to gather descriptions of their lived
o Involves combination of data collection experience which are rich in detail and imagery
methods as well as reflection on its theological or
o Observing psychological meaning
o Interviewing  Defining the sample to be studied requires some
o Diaries and Journals forethought about what is likely to be needed to
 Analysis gain the fullest understanding of the topic
o Depends on study's goal Analysis
o Name seemingly important words or phrases  “A method” is unnecessary or contrary to
(=coding) phenomenology
o Group together similar names  According to Giorgi, there are steps in the method
o From individual voices speaking on multiple o The research team immerses
topics to one topic with multiple voices themselves in the data
speaking o The texts are coded
EMIC and ETIC o Similar meaning units are placed into
EMIC ETIC categories
To interpret data from the To interpret data from the o For each meaning unit, the meaning of
perspective of the sample perspective of the social the participants’ own words is spelled
that was studied analyst or scientific out
observer o Each of the transformed statements of
meaning are combined into a few
Phenomenology thematic statements that describe the
 A study of that which appears experience
 Refers to a person’s perception of the meaning of Grounded Theory
an event  The goal is to generate a theory that explains how an
aspect of the social world ‘works ’to develop a theory
that emerges from, and is therefore connected to,

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 Qualitative Research
the very reality that the theory is developed to Chosen during a study to
explain. take advantage of new
 A qualitative strategy of inquiry in which the OPPORTUNISTIC conditions or circumstances
researcher derives a general, abstract theory of that have arisen
process, action, or interaction grounded in the views Obtained to validate or
of participants in a study. CONFIRMING disconfirm preliminary
 Traditional research designs usually rely on findings
literature review to the formation of a hypothesis
Selected to represent a
 Investigates the actualities in the real world and MAXIMAL VARIATION diversity of perspectives or
analyzes the data with no preconceived ideas or
characteristics
hypothesis.
 Collects data while simultaneously analyzing it and In quantitative research, the sampling method can be
using emerging theory to inform data collection probability or non-probability but in quantitative research,
 Cycle continues until categories are saturated sampling is purposive. You seek out specific persons to
 Method of choice when there is no existing hypothesis gather your data from. Typical is the most used type. If you
to test study frustrations of medical students, you get medical
 Sampling students as critical, considered enlightening because it is so
o Nature of research question should dictate unusual and exceptional. Example is social life, both good in
the sample description sports and music, has high grades. Interview that person “How
 Design to be you po?” Homogenous, when all of the members possess
o Analysis begins shortly after sample is specific trait or characteristics. If you want to see on how to
defined and data collection starts cope with depression after a loss of loved one, recent loss of
o Interviews are transcribed verbatim relatives then that’s your homogenous sampling. Extreme case
o Coded is when all of the members are outliers who do not fit the
o Focused coding general pattern or display extreme characteristic (either super
 Combine most significant codes special or when it comes to grades they are really good or
o Axial coding experienced real difficult). Theoretical when a researcher
 Coding the words or quotations that wants to understand concept or theory. If he wants to
are around the category's "axis," or understand religion (ex. Islam) he will actually get someone
core who is Muslim. Opportunistic is used during the study to take
o Theoretical coding advantage of new conditions or circumstances. If you want to
 Categories generated during study coping after a national disaster, that particular researcher
focused coding are synthesized into would target those who have been affected by typhoon
theory Yolanda. Confirming sampling is obtained to validate or
o Check to see if theory has similarities with disconfirm preliminary findings. If you are studying coping in
others medical school after interviewing one medical student you can
o Ask feedback from other people regarding interview another to confirm the findings from previous student.
theory Maximal variation is when you sample a variety of people to
o Revise until finalized represent the diversity of perspectives or characteristics. If you
Process of Qualitative Research want to check for opinion of people about death penalty
Sampling population. If you sample for each, you do maximal variation of
Considered or judged to be sampling.
typical or representative Data Collection
TYPICAL which of which is being  Document Review
studies o Go back to records, previous transcripts of
One that is considered to be interviews, existing data regarding a
particularly enlightening particular person
CRITICAL because it is so unusual or  Observation
exceptional o Can be either a participating observer or
non-participating observer. A participating
All of the members posses a
observer is when you try to get data while
HOMOGENOUS certain trait or
being in the situation you are trying to study.
characteristics
o Example: you want to study the quality of
All of the members are service of UERM hospital staff. Being a
outliers who do not fit the doctor researcher, you became ill and got
EXTREME CASE general pattern or otherwise admitted. While being admitted, you are
display extreme
collecting data. You observe the doctors,
characteristics nurses, and support staff treated you. In
Helps the researcher to nonparticipating observer, you are detached
THEORETICAL understand a concept or from the circumstance you are trying to
theory study.
o Example: you will just observe how the
hospital staff works without being the patient
or doctor (external observer). Closed or open
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 Qualitative Research
observers are those like in the TV, the
mystery diners. They want to check out the
quality of the restaurant. Those who disguise
are the closed observers. Open observers
are those who are known to the people that
they are observing. If the hospital staff knows
that you are observing them, then you are an
open observer
 Interview
o Main tool to obtain data in qualitative
research
o Questions will arise based on how the
conversation is going. At the start of the
interview, you will only have 3-7 core
questions and subsequent questions will be
out of response to the answers that you will
be getting.
o If interviewee is kind of closed or shy, use
additional questions. If interviewee is open
and willing to give out information, no need
for additional questions.
o Important in qualitative research: go back to
your subject in order to clarify or confirm
what you understood is what your subject
really meant
 Focus Group Discussion
o Interview a group while answering core
questions
o PROS: you get to see disagreements and
different perspectives with regards to a
certain topic
o CONS: sometimes people are shy when they
are in a group. There may only be 1 or 2
persons that will dominate the discussion.
Content Analysis: Coding
 “Interpreting what your subjects are trying to tell you.”
• Quantitative research: uses statistics such as
odds ratio, relative risk, p- value etc.
• Qualitative research: look for themes and
patterns from the transcript of the interview
 Highlighting or quoting particular sentences or
segments of the letter to a particular theme, then
categorize your theme
• Done line per line or per paragraph basing
from the transcript of the interview
 The result of your study would be emerging themes
• Needs to be done for each subject
 After categorizing, you will refine/ improve your
categories
• Combine certain categories into one super
category
• Remove some categories that are not
essential
 Coding -> Categorize
 Qualitative research is very subjective
• Interpret the subjects are trying to tell you
• Ask people why a particular program works
or does not, then why, then interpret what
he/she will say on the evaluation of the
program
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Theoretical Saturation of Data
 It represents researchers reaching a point in their
analysis of data that sampling more data will not
lead to more information related to the research
questions.
 At this point, researchers are allowed to stop
sampling data and to round off their analysis
Practical Concerns
 To protect participants’ privacy, all data should be
anonymized by removing any information that can
identify individuals
 During the transcription process, all other individuals
are identified by their role in a square bracket
 Verification should be done by someone other than
the transcriptionist
Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research
Study Design
 Concern: issue of power and possibility of subtle
coercion
 Potential participants may be informed regarding their
eligibility to participate by their physician
 Recruitment and informed consent process should be
handled by someone else
Risk
 Develop a plan for assessing participants’ discomfort,
anxiety, or even more severe reactions during the
study
Privacy and Confidentiality
 Maintain the privacy and confidentiality of your
actual data and other study documents
 Consider how you will protect participants’ privacy
when you write the study up for publication
Conclusion
 Qualitative Research is an accessible way for
chaplains to contribute new knowledge regarding the
sacred dimension of people’s lived experience
Studies need to be designed to be valid and meaningful, and
are best done collaboratively
SAMPLE STUDY
THE EXPERIENCES OF 1ST YEAR MEDICAL STUDENTS
FROM THEIR TEACHERS FROM BEYOND THE GRAVE
• Studying cadavers is an integral part of medical education.
We spend countless hours doing this. When we think
about medical school, we think about dissection. We did
this study to observe the lived experiences of medical
students and their initial exposure to dissection
• Based on that, what type of quantitative research was
done? Phenomenology
• “We tried to study how 1st year medical students
perceived or experienced cadaver dissection.”
• Purposive sampling was done to determine the
participants of the research.
• Inclusion criteria: students enrolled in human anatomy for
the first time and must be present during the first day of
cadaver dissection.
• Interview was recorded
• Interviews include only a few core questions:
• What are the experiences or perceptions of 1st on the first
day of cadaver dissection
• What is the impact of the 1st day on you as a student?
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• To what extent does the cadaver dissection serve its
function in understanding human anatomy and in
becoming a doctor?
• Other questions are brought about by how the interview
goes

REFERENCES
1. Dr. Butacan’s Powerpoint
2. 2019C

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